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Anexaminationof
entrepreneurshipeducation
intheUnitedStates
GeorgeSolomon
TheGeorgeWashingtonUniversity,Washington,DC,USA
Abstract
Purpose–ThispaperseekstoprovideananalyticaloverviewofthecurrentstateofentrepreneurshipeducationintheUSAfortheyears2004-2005.
Design/methodology/approach–Theauthorperformedanextensivereviewoftheliteratureinentrepreneurshipeducationandenhancedthereviewbyconductinganationalsurveyoftwoandfour-yearcollegesanduniversities.Thissurveywasthesixthsince1979conductedbytheauthortoexaminetrendsandthe“currentstateofentrepreneurshipeducation.”
Findings–The2004-2005surveyindicatesthatthetrends,especiallyintheuseoftechnologyinitiallyexaminedinpriornationalstudiesofentrepreneurship,havecontinuedinasimilardirectionandinsomeareas,forexample,theuseoftechnologyhasincreaseddramatically.Also,newfindingsconfirmthatthetraditionalteachingmethodofrequiringstudentstocreateabusinessplanisstillusedandispopular.Finally,thedatashowthatentrepreneurshipeducatorsareincreasinglyusingguestspeakersandclassdiscussionsmorefrequentlythanthetraditionalapproachofclasslectures.
Researchlimitations/implications–Thenationalsurveyresultedin270schoolsresponding.ThesurveyfindingscannotbegeneralizedtoallschoolsintheUSA,althoughtherearenoothersamplesofthissize.Theevaluationandinterpretationofsomeofthefindingsrepresenttheauthor’sownperceptionsandexperiences,andshould,therefore,beviewedwithcaution.
Originality/value–Providesanevaluationofthestate-of-the-artofentrepreneurshipeducationintheUSA.
KeywordsEntrepreneurialism,Education,Surveys,Businessschools,UnitedStatesofAmericaPapertypeViewpoint
Downloaded by TONGJI UNIVERSITY At 22:57 04 August 2015 (PT)JournalofSmallBusinessandEnterpriseDevelopmentVol.14No.2,2007pp.168-182
qEmeraldGroupPublishingLimited1462-6004
DOI10.1108/14626000710746637
ScholarsandresearchersinentrepreneurshipeducationintheUnitedStateshavereportedthatsmallbusinessmanagementandentrepreneurshipcoursesatboththetwo-andfour-yearcollegeanduniversitylevelshavegrowninboththenumberanddiversityofcourseofferingsfrom1990-2005.ThisexpansionofeducationalofferingshasbeenfueledinpartbydissatisfactionwiththetraditionalFortune500focusofbusinesseducationvoicedbystudentsandaccreditationbodies(SolomonandFernald,1991).Thedilemmaisnotthatdemandishighbutthatthepedagogyselectedmeetsthenewinnovativeandcreativemindsetofstudents.PlaschkaandWelsch(1990)recommendanincreasedfocusonentrepreneurialeducationandmorerealityandexperientially-basedpedagogiessuchasthoserecommendedbyPorterandMcKibbin(1988).Thechallengetoeducatorswillbetocraftcourses,programsandmajorfieldsofstudythatmeettherigorsofacademiawhilekeepingareality-basedfocusandentrepreneurialclimateinthelearningexperienceenvironment.Entrepreneurshipisanongoingprocessthatrequiresamyriadtalents,skillsandknowledgeleadingtouniquepedagogiescapableofstimulatingandimpartingknowledgesimultaneously.
Downloaded by TONGJI UNIVERSITY At 22:57 04 August 2015 (PT)Introduction
Thepast15years(1990-2005)haveusheredanenormousgrowthinthenumberofsmallbusinessmanagementandentrepreneurshipcoursesofferedatboththetwo-andfour-yearcollegeanduniversitylevelsintheUnitedStates.ThisexpansionofeducationalofferingshasbeenpartlyfueledbydissatisfactionwiththetraditionalFortune500focusonbusinesseducationvoicedbystudentsandaccreditationbodies(SolomonandFernald,1991).Thedilemmaisnotthatdemandishighbutthatthepedagogyselectedmustmeettheinnovativeandcreativemindsetofentrepreneurial-orientedstudents.PlaschkaandWelsch(1990)recommendanincreasedfocusonentrepreneurialeducationandmorerealityandexperientially-basedpedagogiessuchasthosesuggestedbyPorterandMcKibbin(1988).
Ifentrepreneurshipeducationistoproduceentrepreneurialfounderscapableofgeneratingrealenterprisegrowthandwealth,thechallengetoeducatorswillbetocraftcourses,programsandmajorfieldsofstudythatmeettherigorsofacademiawhilekeepingareality-basedfocusandentrepreneurialclimateinthelearningexperienceenvironment.Thispaperreportsonselecteddatafromtheresultsofthe2004-2005GeorgeWashingtonUniversity/KauffmanCenterforEntrepreneurialLeadershipnationwidesurveyonentrepreneurshipeducation.
Theentrepreneurialexperiencecanbecharacterizedasbeingchaoticandill-defined,andourentrepreneurshipeducationpedagogiesshouldreflectthischaracterization.Inaddition,weoftenmaketheassumptionthatitisrelativelyeasyforentrepreneurshipstudentstodevelopnewideasfortheirbusinessstart-ups.Quiteanumberofresearchershavewrittenaboutentrepreneurialcompetencies;however,thecompetenciesthatarerequiredfornewbusinessstart-upsareoftenaddressedbyeducatorsinanad-hocmanner.Thereislittleconsensusonjustwhatexactlyentrepreneurshipstudentsshouldbetaught.Forentrepreneurshipeducators,thechallengeistoprovidethesubjectmatter,resourcesandexperiencesthatwillprepareentrepreneurshipstudentstocopewiththemyriadofexpectationsanddemandstheywillfaceastheystarttheirnewventures.
Entrepreneurshipeducation
Aswedelveintotheliteratureonentrepreneurshipeducation,itwouldbehelpfultodefinewhatwemeanby“entrepreneurshipeducation.”ShepherdandDouglas(1997)proposethisdefinition:
Theessenceofentrepreneurshipistheabilitytoenvisionandchartacourseforanewbusinessventurebycombininginformationfromthefunctionaldisciplinesandfromtheexternalenvironmentinthecontextoftheextraordinaryuncertaintyandambiguitywhichfacesanewbusinessventure.Itmanifestsitselfincreativestrategies,innovativetactics,uncannyperceptionoftrendsandmarketmoodchanges,courageousleadershipwhenthewayforwardisnotobviousandsoon.Whatweteachinourentrepreneurshipclassesshouldservetoinstillandenhancetheseabilities.
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Historicalperspective
Entrepreneurshipeducationhasexperiencedremarkablegrowthinthepast50years(1955-2005)fromasinglecourseofferingtoadiverserangeofeducationalopportunitiesavailableatmorethan1,500collegesanduniversitiesaroundtheworld
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(CharneyandLibecap,2000).Theearlypredictionthat“...thenumberofcourseofferingsshouldincreaseatanexpandingrateoverthenextfewyears”(Vesper,1985)heldtrue.In1985,253collegesoruniversitiesofferedcoursesinsmallbusinessmanagementorentrepreneurship,andin1993,441entrepreneurshipcourseswereavailabletointerestedstudents(GartnerandVesper,1994).Fourteenyearslater,Foote(1999)reportedstudentenrollmentinentrepreneurshipclassesatfivetopAmericanbusinessschoolsincreased92percentfrom1996to1999(fromatotalof3,078to5,913),andthenumberofentrepreneurshipclassesofferedincreased74percent.Arecentestimatesuggeststhatentrepreneurshipandsmallbusinesseducationmaynowbeofferedinasmanyas1,200postsecondaryinstitutionsintheUnitedStatesalone(Solomonetal.,2002)witheducationalexperiencesrangingfromtraditionalcourseworktointegrativecurriculathatincludesmarketing,finance,newproductdevelopmentandtechnology(CharneyandLibecap,2000).
Differentiatingentrepreneurshipeducationfrombusinesseducation
Smallbusinessmanagementandentrepreneurshipcourseshaveexperiencedremarkablegrowthinthelastseveraldecades,thereisgeneralconsensusthatthefieldisfarfrommaturity(RobinsonandHayes,1991).Nevertheless,wehaveseenanincreaseinentrepreneurshipeducationprogramsandresearchwilllikelycontinueasthefieldmatures.Wortman(ascitedinPlaschkaandWelsch,1990)throughcausalresearchsummarizedthe1980sinentrepreneurship,andthestateofentrepreneurshiptodayseemsjustasapt:.
Apositivemovementtowardacommonlyaccepteddefinitionofentrepreneurshipandthedefinitionofthefieldofentrepreneurship..
Adivisionofentrepreneurshipintoindividual(orindependent)entrepreneurshipandcorporateentrepreneurship(intrapreneurship)..
Amovementtowardmoresophisticatedresearchdesigns,researchmethodsandstatisticaltechniques..
Ashifttowardlargerresearchdesigns,researchmethodsandstatisticaltechniques..
Aslightmovementawayfromexploratoryresearchtowardcausalresearch.Asthefieldevolves,discussioncontinuesregardingcoursecontent,theuseoftechnology-drivenpedagogyandeffectivenessmeasures.Earlydiscussionsfocusedontheneedforentrepreneurshipeducationandquestionedwhetherentrepreneurshipcourseswerenotsimplytraditionalmanagementcourseswithanewlabel(King,2001).Whilethereisgeneralagreementthatthecoremanagementcoursesofferedintraditionalbusinessprogramsisessentialforsuccessinanybusinesscareer(BlockandStumpf,1992),therearefundamentaldifferencesbetweenbusinessprinciplesappliedtonewventuresandthoseappliedtolargecorporations(Davisetal.,1985).
Acoreobjectiveofentrepreneurshipeducationthatdifferentiatesitfromtypicalbusinesseducationisthechallenge“togeneratemorequicklyagreatervarietyofdifferentideasforhowtoexploitabusinessopportunity,andtheabilitytoprojectamoreextensivesequenceofactionsforenteringbusiness”(VesperandMcMullan,1988).Businessentryisafundamentallydifferentactivitythanmanagingabusiness(GartnerandVesper,1994);entrepreneurialeducationmustaddresstheequivocal
Downloaded by TONGJI UNIVERSITY At 22:57 04 August 2015 (PT)Downloaded by TONGJI UNIVERSITY At 22:57 04 August 2015 (PT)natureofbusinessentry(Gartneretal.,1992).Tothisend,entrepreneurialeducationmustincludeskill-buildingcoursesinnegotiation,leadership,newproductdevelopment,creativethinkingandexposuretotechnologicalinnovation(McMullanandLong,1987;VesperandMcMullan,1988).Otherareasidentifiedasimportantforentrepreneurialeducationincludeawarenessofentrepreneurialcareeroptions(Hills,1988;Donckels,1991);sourcesofventurecapital(VesperandMcMullan,1988;ZeithamlandRice,1987);ideaprotection(VesperandMcMullan,1988);ambiguitytolerance(Ronstadt,1987);thecharacteristicsthatdefinetheentrepreneurialpersonality(Hills,1988;ScottandTwomey,1998;HoodandYoung,1993)andthechallengesassociatedwitheachstageofventuredevelopment(McMullanandLong,1987;PlaschkaandWelsch,1990).
Theintegratednature,specificskillsandbusinesslifecycleissuesinherentinnewventuresdifferentiateentrepreneurshipandthereforeentrepreneurialeducationfromatraditionalbusinesseducation.Anadditionalcomparison,withinthecontextofentrepreneurialeducation,canbemadebetweensmallbusinessmanagementcoursesandentrepreneurshipcourses–adistinctionnotalwaysaddressedintheliterature(ZeithamlandRice,1987).
Canentrepreneurshipbetaught?
Researchandpracticalissuesofentrepreneurialenquiryfoundintheliterature,rangeacrossitsdefinitionanditsdistinctionfrom“normal”businessactivity.Similarly,researchintotheteachingofentrepreneurshipprovidesabroadframeworkofdifferencesandsimilaritiesinperceptionoftheabilityto“teach”entrepreneurialbehaviorsandthemannerinwhichthisisbestachieved.
Theseissuesunderliethequestion“canentrepreneurshipbetaught?”andunderpinthedebatefurtheredinthecurrentstudyonentrepreneurialeducation.Howisentrepreneurshipcurrentlybeingtaught?Andfundamentalissuewhichiswhetherentrepreneurshipcanbetaughtatallisthefundamentalissuesofdebate.CharharbaghiandWillis(ascitedinAdcroftetal.,2004)areskepticalandarguethat“entrepreneurscannotbemanufactured;onlyrecognized.”Adcroftetal.(2004)goontoarguethatmanagementeducationcancontributetotheprovisionoftechnicalskillsofentrepreneurs,butwhatitcannotcontributetoisthe“geographicchronology”–theelementofserendipity–thatiscentraltoentrepreneurialevents.CurranandStanworth(1989)suggestthatteachingentrepreneurshipmaynotbecost-effective.Theyarenotcertainoftheattributesandbehaviorsthatcharacterizeanentrepreneur,plustheevidencethatentrepreneursmaybe“antipathetictowardseducationinmostforms,alltellagainstentrepreneurialeducationbeingresource-effective”(p.11).GaravanandO’Cinneide(1994)partiallyagreewiththesedoubtswhentheystate:“Onehastoask–whatcanbetaughtthatisspecifictoentrepreneurshipperse?Thereisnobodyofwellresearchedanddevelopedknowledgewhichmightformthebasisofsuchprograms,afactwhichhasbeenconsistentlyemphasizedintheliterature”(p.6).
Ontheotherhand,afterareviewofempiricalstudies,Gormanetal.(1997)reportthatthereissupportthatentrepreneurshipcanbetaught,oratleastencouraged,byentrepreneurshipeducation.Anselm(1993)alsosuggeststhatentrepreneurshipcanbelearned.Accordingtoher,individualsmayindeedbebornwithpropensitiestowardentrepreneurship,butthelevelofentrepreneurshipactivitywillbehigherifentry-level
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entrepreneurialskillsaretaught.Kuratko(2003)putitevenmoresuccinctly:“Thequestionofwhetherentrepreneurshipcanbetaughtisobsolete!”(p.8).
Thelackofrigorousresearchonthetopicofentrepreneurshipeducationhasmorethanafewwritersconcerned.Forexample,Brockhaus(1993),notesthatfew“havedoneempiricalresearchandveryfewhavecomparedagroupthatisreceivingtheentrepreneurshipeducationtoanothersimilarlymatchedgroupthatisnotreceivingtheeducation”(p.12).Muchoftheresearchhas“tendedtobefragmentedandwithanexplanatory,descriptiveorientation”(GaravanandO’Cinneide,1994,p.7).
Unfortunately,asreportedbyGormanetal.(1997),“thereislittleuniformityintheprogramsoffered,especiallyifoneconsiderstherelativesimilarityofotherbusinessprograms”(p.61),atopictobeexploredinthenextsections.
EducationmethodologiesCoursecontent
Despitecontinuingargumentthatentrepreneurshipcannotbetaught(Fiet,2001a,Fiet,2001b,andBusenitzetal.,2003)and(BlockandStumpf,1992,Katz,2003,Meyer,2001andSolomonetal.,2002)entrepreneurshipcanbetaught,manyglobalinstitutionsareteachingentrepreneurshipcoursesandprograms.AcrosstheUStwoandfouryearcollegesanduniversitiespresentanumberofcoursesaimedatprovidingentrepreneurialskillsandencouragingentrepreneurialbehavior.Thereishoweverlittleuniformitywithinthesegroupsoramongtheinternationalinstitutionsincorporatedinthisstudy(Gormanetal.,1997).Thismaybeafunctionofanemergingfieldwithalimited,butgrowing,bodyofknowledge.Asresearchersandscholarsdevelopframeworksandsetsofhypothesesforthestudyofemergingbusinesssuccessesandfailures,thecontentofcourseswillevolvebasedonwhatisneededandcanbetaughtforsuccessfuldevelopment(BlockandStumpf,1992).AccordingtoRonstadt(1990),theprogramfocusof“theoldschool”wasonaction,thebusinessplanandexposuretoexperiencedvisitorswhoinspiredstudentsthroughstoriesandpracticaladvice.Thiseraofentrepreneurshipeducationwas“oneventure”centeredandwasessentiallybasedonthepremisethatentrepreneurialsuccesswasafunctionofthe“righthumantraitsandcharacteristics.”Thenewschool,whilestillactionoriented,buildsandreliesonsomelevelofpersonal,technicalorindustryexperience.Itrequirescriticalthinkingandethicalassessmentandisbasedonthepremisethatsuccessfulentrepreneurialactivitiesareafunctionofhuman,ventureandenvironmentalconditions.Thisnewerformofentrepreneurshipeducationalsofocusesonentrepreneurshipasacareerprocesscomposedofmultiplenewventuresandtheessentialskillsofnetworkingor“entrepreneurialknow-who”(Ronstadt,1990).
AnotherviewfromMcMullanetal.(1985)callsforcoursestobestructuredaroundaseriesofstrategicdevelopmentchallengesincludingopportunityidentificationandfeasibilityanalysis;newventureplanning,financingandoperating;newmarketdevelopmentandexpansionstrategies;andinstitutionalizinginnovation.Real-timeentrepreneurialactivitiesinclude“projectingnewtechnologicaldevelopments,strategicallyplanning,assistinginattractingnecessaryresourcesandarrangingforjointventures”(VesperandMcMullan,1988,p.10).Ideally,studentsshouldcreatemultipleventureplans,practiceidentificationofopportunitiesandhaveextensiveexposuretoentrepreneurrolemodels.Studentinteractionwiththeserolemodelsmayoccurinseveralimportantwaysincludinghavingentrepreneursserveascoachesand
Downloaded by TONGJI UNIVERSITY At 22:57 04 August 2015 (PT)mentors(HillsandWelsch,1986;MitchellandChesteen,1995);classroomspeakers(Hills,1988);andinterviewsubjects(Hills,1988;Solomonetal.,1994;Truelletal.,1998).Effectiveentrepreneurialeducationrequiresstudentstohavesubstantialhands-onexperienceworkingwithcommunityventuressothattheycanlearntoaddvaluetorealventuresandthusbepreparedtoaddvaluetotheirownventures(McMullanandLong,1987).
Pedagogy
Inadditiontocoursecontent,educatorsarechallengedwithdesigningeffectivelearningopportunitiesforentrepreneurshipstudents.SextonandBowman(1984)suggestedthatprogramsforentrepreneurshipstudentsshouldemphasizeindividualactivitiesovergroupactivities,berelativelyunstructuredandpresentproblemsthatrequirea“novelsolutionunderconditionsofambiguityandrisk”(p.12).Studentsmustbepreparedtothriveinthe“unstructuredanduncertainnatureofentrepreneurialenvironments”(Ronstadt,1990,p.72).Offeringstudentsopportunitiesto“experience”entrepreneurshipandsmallbusinessmanagementisathemeamongmanyentrepreneurialeducationprograms.
Themostcommonelementsinentrepreneurshipcoursescontinuetobeventureplanwriting,casestudies,readingsandlecturesbyguestspeakersandfaculty(Vesper,1985;Klatt,1988;Kent,1990;GartnerandVesper,1994).Thetypicalelementsofsmallbusinessmanagementcoursesincludeclasswork,testsandamajorprojectwhichisusuallyaconsultingproject(Carroll,1993).Projectbased,experientiallearningiswidespreadinentrepreneurialeducationandmaytakemyriadformssuchasthedevelopmentofbusinessplans(Hills,1988;VesperandMcMullan,1988;GartnerandVesper,1994;Gormanetal.,1997);studentbusinessstart-ups(Hills,1988;Truelletal.,1998);consultationwithpracticingentrepreneurs(Klatt,1988;Solomonetal.,1994);computersimulations(Brawer,1997);andbehavioralsimulations(Stumpfetal.,1991).Otherpopularactivitiesincludeinterviewswithentrepreneurs(Solomonetal.,1994),environmentalscans(Solomonetal.,1994),“live”cases(GartnerandVesper,1994),fieldtripsandtheuseofvideoandfilms(Klatt,1988).Studententrepreneurshipclubsarealsowidespread(GartnerandVesper,1994).
Anticipatedchangesincoursepedagogyincludeagreateruseofvarioustypesofcases,increasedinternationalconsiderations,amoreintensefocusonstrategyformationandimplementationandanincreaseintheuseoftechnologyforvariouspurposes(Ahiarah,1989).Computersimulationsprovideentrepreneurialstudents“withmultipleexperiencesofsimulatednewventuredecisionmaking”(VanClouse,1990).TheuseofcomputersimulationsdescribedbyBreweretal.(1993)affordsstudentsrealisticentrepreneurshipexperiencesthatdevelopskillsincomplexdecision-makingandofferinstantfeedback.
Pedagogyisalsochangingbasedonabroadeningmarketinterestinentrepreneurialeducation.Newinterdisciplinaryprogramsusefacultyteamstodevelopprogramsfornon-businessstudents,andthereisagrowingtrendincoursesspecificallydesignedforart,engineeringandsciencestudents.Non-businessstudentsmayrequirebasictechnologylaboratoriesthatfocusoninternet-basedfeasibilityresearch,developingeffectiveaudiovisualpitchpresentationsandcreatingprofessionally-formattedbusinessplans.Inadditiontocoursesfocusedonpreparingthefutureentrepreneurandsmallbusinessmanager,instructionalmethodologiesshouldalsobedevelopedfor
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thosewhomanageentrepreneursinorganizations;potentialresourcepeople(accountants,lawyers,consultants,etc.)usedbyentrepreneurs;andtopmanagerswhomustprovidevisionandleadershipforcorporationswhichmustinnovateinordertosurvive(BlockandStumpf,1992).
Pedagogy:teachingforcompetencies
Competencycanbedefinedasanunderlyingcharacteristicofapersonwhichresultsineffectiveand/orsuperiorperformanceinajob(Boyatzis,Spencer&Spencer,ascitedinBird,2002).Asinprevioussections,thereislittleagreementinthefieldaboutthecompetenciesorcapabilitiesthataremostvaluableforaspiringentrepreneurstolearn.Entrepreneurialeducatorsteachforcompetencies;theirsyllabireflecttheirbeliefsandacademicdisciplines.Fiet(2001a),forexample,examinedthesyllabiof18entrepreneurshipcoursesandfoundtheycovered116differenttopics;however,topicsdonotalwaysreflectcompetencies(e.g.familybusiness).PlaschkaandWelsch(1990)notethatmanyprogramsareevolvingonatrialanderrororasneededbasis,dependingonthetypesofentrepreneurialprojectscurrentlyundertakenintheprogramandonthefeedbackofstudentsexperiencingdeficiencies,gapsanddifficultiesintheircourses.
Overall“essence”ofentrepreneurshipeducation
Entrepreneurshipeducationprogramsexistmostgenerallywithinestablisheduniversitybusinessschools,andthispresentsaparadoxthathelpstoexplaintheabove-mentionedlackofuniformityincurriculumandpedagogies.Traditionalbusinessprogramshavecomeunderincreasedcriticismforfailingtoberelevanttotheneedsoftoday’schangingbusinessenvironment.Onecommoncriticismisthatbusinesseducationhasbecometoofunctionallyoriented–thatitdoesnotstressthecross-functionalcomplexityofbusinessproblems.Othercriticismfocusesonthe“lackofcreativityandindividualthinkingrequiredatbothundergraduateandgraduatelevels”(Solomonetal.,1994).SextonandBowman(1984)notethatmostbusinessschoolcoursesarehighlystructuredanddonotoftenposeproblemswhichrequirenovelsolutions.
Evenentrepreneurshipcoursesfallintoaleft-brain-orientedtrap.Bird(2002)describesmanycoreentrepreneurshipcoursesasthosethat:Requirestudentstowriteandpresentabusinessplanandoftenstudents(inteamslimitedtofellowclassmateswhomaynotberationallychosenaspartners)choosethebusinessconceptstopursue....Problemsarepresentedandtimeframesforsolvingthemgiven.Thereisoftentheillusionorrealityofrightanswers”(p.210).Itisalsoquitecommonforentrepreneurshipclassroomsituationstofocusheavilyontheory–eithermanagementtheorybeingadjustedtogiveadviceforentrepreneurshipandsmallbusiness–orentrepreneurshiptheoryexplainingtheemergenceofentrepreneursandtheirpersonaltraits.Othersechothisconcernbynotingthatentrepreneurshipprogramsofteneducate“about”entrepreneurshipratherthaneducate“for”entrepreneurship(2003;Kirby,2003).Theessenceofentrepreneurshipeducation,then,mustreflectreality.GaravanandO’Cinneide(1994)suggestthatthebestmethodssuitedtoanentrepreneuriallearningstyleareactive-appliedandactive-experimentation,andthesealsoincludeconcreteexperience,reflectiveobservationandabstractconceptualization(Davies&Gibb,ascitedin(GaravanandO’Cinneide,1994).Inshort,“educational
Downloaded by TONGJI UNIVERSITY At 22:57 04 August 2015 (PT)programsandsystemsshouldbegearedtowardcreativity,multidisciplinaryandprocess-orientedapproachesandtheory-basedpracticalapplications.Whatisneededisamoreproactive,problem-solvingandflexibleapproachratherthantherigid,passive-reactiveconceptandtheory-emphasizedfunctionalapproach”(PlaschkaandWelsch,1990,p.62).
Methodology
ResearchersatTheGeorgeWashingtonUniversitydevelopedamailsurveytoexaminethecurrentstateofentrepreneurialeducationintheUnitedStatesandinternationallyandtoevaluatetheextentandbreadthofentrepreneurialeducationmethodsandcourseofferingsduringthe2004-2005academicyear.Thestudyalsosoughttoexaminepedagogicaldevelopmentsandtrends,aswellasanyrelationsbetweenandamongstudents,courseofferingsandteachingpedagogy.Finally,thestudysoughttoexaminewhatinnovativeandcreativeteachingpedagogieswerebeingintroducedintotheclassroomsuchasuseofInternetandeducationaltechnologies.Thecontentofthesurveyisorganizedasfollows:.
identifyinstitutionalacademicentities–two-yearcommunityandjuniorcolleges,four-yearcollegesanduniversitiesandinternationaluniversitiesandcollegeswhichwereofferingsmallbusinessandentrepreneurialeducationalprograms;.
exploreteachingpedagogiesemployedbothinsideandoutsideoftheclasssetting;and.identifythetraditionalandnon-traditionalpedagogiesemployedgiventhenon-traditionalfociofthefield.Over4,000questionnaireswereinitiallymailedtotwo-andfour-yearcollegesanduniversitiesbothintheUnitedStatesandinternationally.Afteramonth,afollow-uppostcardwassentincludinganincentiveoffertostimulateresponserate.Ultimately,279qualifiedresponseswerereceivedboththroughthemailandonlinesubmissions.Inordertoconductmeaningfuldataanalysis,thedatawereanalyzedusingtheStatisticalPackagefortheSocialSciencesPersonalComputerPlussoftware(SPSSPCþ).Dataregardingtypeofinstitutionwererecodedandbrokenintothreediscretegroupings(two-yearcommunityandjuniorcolleges,four-yearcollegesanduniversitiesandinternationaluniversitiesandcolleges).ThequestionsregardingtrendsinentrepreneurialeducationwerecodedusingthemultipleresponsetechniqueofSPSSPCþ.Ananalysisofthesurveydatafollows.
Analysis
AnanalysisofthedatawasconductedtoexaminethefollowingquestionspresentedintheNationalEntrepreneurshipSurveyconductedbyresearchersatTheGeorgeWashingtonUniversity:.
Whatcourseswereofferedandweremostpopularbytwo-andfour-yearcollegesanduniversitiesinthe2004-2005academicyears?.
Whattypeandleveloffrequencyinteachingmethodsinentrepreneurshipcourses/curriculumdidtwo-andfour-yearcollegesanduniversitiesoffer?
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Didtheinstructorsdeveloptheirownsetsofreadingsandtextmaterialsordidtheyusealready-developedones?
Whichperiodicals(ifany)wereusedintheentrepreneurshipclasses(requiredorrecommended)?
Didtwo-andfour-yearcollegesanduniversitiesrequiretheirstudentstocompleteweb-assignmentsontheweb?
Didtwo-andfour-yearcollegesanduniversitiesofferentrepreneurshipcourse(s)ontheweb?
Didtwo-andfour-yearcollegesanduniversitiesofferinformationonthewebregardingentrepreneurship,newventurecreationandsmallbusinesstobothstudentsandentrepreneurs?
Didtwo-andfour-yearcollegesanduniversitiesoffermanagementandtechnicalassistanceforstudentsandentrepreneurs?
Findings
ForFigure1(Question1),thedataindicateswhichcourseswereofferedandweremostpopularbytwo-andfour-yearcollegesanduniversities.Theyinclude:(1)Entrepreneurship;(2)SmallBusinessManagement;(3)NewVentureCreation;(4)Technology/Innovation;(5)VentureCapital;(6)SmallBusinessConsulting;(7)SmallBusinessStrategySeminar;(8)Franchising;(7)NewProductDevelopment;(9)EntrepreneurshipMarketing;(10)SmallBusinessFinance;and(11)Creativity.
TheresultsinFigure1indicatethatthemostpopularcourseofferedbytwo-andfour-yearcollegesanduniversitiesinthe2004-2005academicyearwasEntrepreneurship(53percent),followedbySmallBusinessManagement(36percent),andthenbyNewVentureCreation(30percent).
Figure1.
2004-2005academicyear:typesofcoursesoffered
Downloaded by TONGJI UNIVERSITY At 22:57 04 August 2015 (PT)ForFigure2(Question2),thedataindicatewhattypeandleveloffrequencyinteachingmethodsinentrepreneurshipcourses/curriculumtwo-andfour-yearcollegesanduniversitiesoffer.Theyinclude:(1)CaseStudies;(2)CreationofBusinessPlans;(3)Lecturesbybusinessowners;(4)Discussions;(5)ComputerSimulations;(6)GuestSpeakers;(7)SmallBusinessInstitute(SBI);(8)ResearchProjects;(7)FeasibilityStudies;(9)Internships;(10)On-sitevisitswithsmallbusinessowner/newventure;and(11)Inclassexercises.
TheresultsinFigure2indicatethatthemostpopulartypeofteachingmethodinentrepreneurshipcourses/curriculumofferedbytwo-andfour-yearcollegesanduniversitieswasCreationofBusinessPlans(44percentveryfrequent),followedbyClassDiscussion(43percentveryfrequent),andthenbyGuestSpeakers(28percentveryfrequent).Also,inregardtoQuestion3(mentionedabove),thedataindicatesthat60percentoftheinstructorsdevelopedtheirownsetsofreadingsandtextmaterials.ForFigure3(Question4),thedataindicateswhichperiodicals(ifany)wereusedintheentrepreneurshipclasses(requiredorrecommended)andwhichonesweremostpopular.Theyinclude:(1)BusinessWeek;(2)Entrepreneur;(3)FastCompany;(4)Fortune;(5)FortuneSmallBusiness;(6)Inc.;and(7)TheWallStreetJournal.
TheresultsforFigure3indicatethatthemostpopularperiodicals(ifany)thatwereusedintheentrepreneurshipclasses(requiredorrecommended)bytwo-andfour-yearcollegesanduniversitieswereEntrepreneurmagazine(36percent),followedbyTheWallStreetJournal(28percent),andthenbyBusinessWeek(24percent)andInc.magazine(24percent).
Figure4providesaslewofanswersthatdealtwiththefollowingquestions:
(1)Didtwo-andfour-yearcollegesanduniversitiesrequiretheirstudentsto
completeweb-assignmentsontheweb(question5)?
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Figure2.
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Periodical(s)usedinclass
Figure4.
Technologypedagogy
(2)Didtwo-andfour-yearcollegesanduniversitiesofferentrepreneurship
course(s)ontheweb(question6)?
(3)Didtwo-andfour-yearcollegesanduniversitiesofferinformationontheweb
regardingentrepreneurship,newventurecreationandsmallbusinesstobothstudentsandentrepreneurs(question7)?
(4)Didtwo-andfour-yearcollegesanduniversitiesoffermanagementand
technicalassistanceon-lineforstudentsandentrepreneurs(question8)?ThedatainFigure4indicatethefollowing:.
50percentoftwo-andfour-yearcollegesanduniversitiesrequiretheirstudentstocompleteweb-assignmentsontheweb(question5);.
41percentoftwo-andfour-yearcollegesanduniversitiesofferentrepreneurshipcourse(s)ontheweb(question6);.
49percentoftwo-andfour-yearcollegesanduniversitiesofferinformationonthewebregardingentrepreneurship,newventurecreationandsmallbusinesstobothstudentsandentrepreneurs(question7);and
.
49percentoftwo-andfour-yearcollegesanduniversitiesoffermanagementandtechnicalassistanceon-lineforstudentsandentrepreneurs(question8).
Concludingremarks
The2004-2005surveyindicatesthatthetrendsdiscoveredinthesurveysconductedfrom1977-2000nationalsurveysofentrepreneurshiphavecontinuedinasimilarpath,andinsomeareas,suchastheuseoftechnology,haveincreaseddramatically.Wehavenotedthatthetraditionalteachingmethodofrequiringstudentstocreatebusinessplansstillexistsasafoundationforteachingthenutsandboltsofentrepreneurshipandsmallbusinessmanagement.Yet,thedataalsoshowsthateducationalinstitutionsaremovingtowardsamoreknowledgesharingecologywhereclassdiscussionsandguestspeakersarebecomingmorepopular.
TheuseofperiodicalsandmagazinessuchasTheWallStreetJournal,EntrepreneurmagazineandBusinessWeekhavecontinuedtosupplementtheinformationbaseforbothentrepreneurshipeducatorsandstudentsalike.Webelievetheseperiodicalsandmagazinesreflectthelatestnewsandtrendsinthemarket.Thisallowsbotheducatorsandstudentstoapplythetheoriespresentedinclasswithreallifeexamplesthatreflectthepulseofthemarket.
Overall,the2004-2005NationalSurveyofEntrepreneurshipEducationdidnotyieldanyunanticipatedresults.Thedatathoughhasconfirmedoursurprisingfindingsinthe2000surveythatshowedthedramaticriseoftheusetechnologyandtheshiftinfocusfromlecturebaseteachingmethodstoamorecollaborativeknowledgesharingone.WecanconcludeandsaythatthedatashowsthatentrepreneurialeducationisinfullsteamandithasjustpickedupevenmoresteamwiththeutilizationoftheInternet.Anothermajorconsiderationtobetakenfromthisstudyistheroleoftechnologyinentrepreneurshipandsmallbusinesseducation.Atleast50percentofthecollegesanduniversitiesthatrespondedtooursurveyindicatedthattheyareusingtheInternetaspartoftheirteachingseitherthroughonlinecoursesorsimplypostinginformationonthewebforstudentsandentrepreneurstoread.TheInternetisplayingamajorroleinallowingthisnewtypeofeducationtotakeplace,anditwillcontinuetogrow.
Theissuewebelieveisnolongerifthecollegesanduniversitiesareofferingonlinecoursesandinformationbutratherthequalityofthematerialbeingpresented.Webelievethatthereisaneedtopaymoreattentiontothequalityofmaterialbeingpresented(thecontent)ontheInternetratherthanhowitispresented.Therefore,wecallforastrongerfocusonqualityratherthanquantityandstyle.
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