It refers to a systematic study of how one person acquires a second language subsequent to his native language.
Acquisition习得: 无意识地学会
Learning学习：通过系统学习语法规律等学会 2. Interlanguage 中介语
Selinker (1972) coined the term “interlanguage” to refer to the systematic
knowledge of an L2 which is independent of both these learners’ L1 and the target language. The term has come to be used with different but related meanings: (1) to refer to the series of interlocking systems which characterize acquisition. (2) to refer to the system that is observed at a single stage of development. (“interlanguage”), and (3) to refer to particular L1/L2 combination (for example,L1 French/ L2 English v. L1 Japanese/L2 English). Other terms that refer to the same basic idea are “approximative system” and “transitional competence”.
定义： 中介语：中介语理论假设第二语言学习者有一个自行创造的独特的语言系统，介乎学习者的母语和目的语之间，并随学习的进展逐渐向目的语靠拢。因为游离于母语和目的语之间，中介语自然包含许多错误。 E.g. I lost my road. I lost my way. 特征：
Fossilization（石化现象）:It refers to the phenomenon that incorrect linguistic features become a permanent part of the way a person speaks or writes a language. 石化现象是中介语的重要特征
E.g. All students are not here.不是所有的学生都在这里 None of the student is here.所有的学生都不在这里
Fossilization
Selinker (1972) noted that most L2 learners fail to reach target-language competence. That is, they stop learning while their internalized rule system contains rules different from those of target system. This is referred to as “fossilization”. It reflects the operation of various internal processes.
一、Concepts of Second language acquisition: 1．Objectives:
① Competence vs performance ② L1 vs. L2 vs. FL
③ Acquisition vs. learning ④ Input vs. output
⑤ Interlanguage 中介语
⑥ Variability
⑦ Fossilization （石化现象） ⑧ Language transfer 迁移 2. Competence vs. Performance
Chomsky (1957)made his famous distinguish between Competence and Performance
Competence: an ideal speaker’s knowledge of his languages manifested in his ability to use
the language.
Sound, form, meaning:
Performance: the specific utterances, including grammatical mistakes and non-linguistic features such as hesitations, etc.
Competence and performance in language learning
What is acquired or learned of the two?
In language learning, what does the distinction tell us? (result, process, evaluation) 3. First language vs. Second language vs. F L 1．What is First language (L1)?
L1, with other names: native language (NL), mother tongue, primary language. First language or second language indicates the order or sequence of language learning. 2. What is second language (L2)?
The language one learns after his native language or L1.“Second” can mean any language one learn that is subsequent to his L1. 3.Two senses of L2
A: the language one learns after his native language, one learns the language in the target language (TL) language environment. (narrow sense)
Example: A Chinese learns English in US or UK. An American learns Chinese in China. B: Any language that one learns other than his native tongue.( broad sense) Example: We are learning English in China. 4.Foreign Language (FL)
The language that one learns other than his first language, but not in the target language environment.
① Learning English not in the English-spoken countries. ② Differences between FL and L2
FL L2
4.A Comparison between L1 and L2 acquisition
Speed Stages
Error correction Depth of knowledge Success
Level of attainment
5.Acquisition vs. Learning 1. What is acquisition?
The distinction between acquisition and learning was made by S. Krashen, the famous American applied linguist in his “Monitor Theory”.
He defined two types of modes of learning in adult L2 learning.
2.Acquisition: the subconscious learning process in the natural language environment that is not influenced by explicit instruction in a second language’s rules and system or about errors.
Learning: is a conscious process of language development that is the result of intended and explicit instruction in a second language’s roles and system or about errors in a artificial environment such as a formal language classroom.
A comparison between Learning and acquisition
Acquisition Implicit, subconscious Informal situations Uses grammatical “feel” Depends on attitude Stable order of acquisition
6.Input and Output
Learning Explicit, conscious Formal situations Uses grammatical rules Depends on aptitude Simple to complex order of learning ① What is input and output?
Generally, input refers to the channels (process) that learners acquire information of language in learning or acquisition: listening and reading;
Output refers to the channels and process results) that learners produce language, including speaking and writing.
② Kinds of Input Authentic input:
Native speaker input, no modification Modified input
Native speaker input, no modification Interlanguage input Teacher talk, peers talk
③ Linguistic adjustments to Non-Native Speakers (NNS) “foreigner talk” ( Ferguson, 1975) well-formed but modified. Feature
* slower, more careful pronunciation, stress on key words （VOA special English） * shorter grammar structures * grammatical relations made explicit * less syntactic or propositional complexity * restricted vocabulary size * fewer pro forms
④ Comprehensible input
Stephen Krashen (1981) held that learners acquire an L2 by hearing and understanding messages that are slightly above their current language L2 level. This type of input is called comprehensible input (namely, “i+1”)
Essentially, comprehensible input is that bit of language that is heard/read and that is slightly ahead of a learner’s current state of grammatical knowledge.
Language containing structures a learner already knows essentially serves no purpose in acquisition. Similarly, language containing structures ahead of a learner’s current knowledge is not useful.
A learner does not have the ability to “do” anything with those structures.
Krashen defined a learner’s current state of knowledge as i and the next stage as i + 1.
Thus the input a learner is exposed to must be at the i + 1 level in order for it to be of use in terms of acquisition. “We move from i, our current level to i + 1, the next level along the natural order, by understanding input containing i + 1” (1985, p. 2).
The teacher’s main role, then, is to ensure that students receive comprehensible input.
⑤ Comprehensible output
Many researchers believe that Input alone is not sufficient for acquisition, because when one hears language one can often interpret the meaning without the use of syntax. Input ----------------→output (what is in between?)
Intake is very necessary for Second language learners also need comprehensible output: chances to practice their language. This practice is called comprehensible output. Cooperative learning is one effective way to do so.
Comprehensible output refers to the need for a learner to be “pushed toward the delivery of a message that is not only conveyed, but that is conveyed precisely, coherently, and appropriately” (Swain, 1985, p. 249).
Output, thus, would seem to have a potentially significant role in the development of syntax and morphology” (Swain, 1995, p. 128). 可理解输入的三个功能：
注意/触发功能(noticing)。忽视问题、识别问题并对相关输入予以注意、注意特定的输入加工，寻找解决办法
假设验证功能(hypothesis-testing)。L2学习是一个不断对目标做出假设并不断验证的过程。
元语言功能(metalanguage)。琢磨、分析语言所得出的关于语言的形式、结构和其它方面的知识教元语言。当学习者反思其目标语用法时，输出就起元语言的功能。 7.Interlanguage (IL)
Definition: inter+language
Larry Selinker (1972) coined the term interlanguage is an emerging linguistics system that has been developed by a learner of a second language who has not become fully proficient yet, but is only approximating the target language.
An IL is idiosyncraticaly based on the learners’ experiences with the second language.
The term interlanguage was first used by Selinker (1972). Various terms have been used for the same thing:
Nemser (1971): approximative systems
Corder (1971): idiosyncratic dialects, transitional competence. 8.Transfer
① Definition:
Transfer is the influence resulting from the similarities and differences between the target language and any other language that has been previously (and perhaps imperfectly) acquired (Odlin 1989:27)
“一个人关于一种语言的知识对他另一种语言的知识或使用产生的影响” The influence of a person’s knowledge of one language on that person’s knowledge or use of another language. (Jarvis & Pavlenko，2008：1） 。
语言迁移还可以指L2向L1的迁移（反向迁移），也称语言磨蚀（attrition）。 2. Classification: Transfer can be positive and negative，originate from L1 or L2 Positive transfer: result Negative transfer:
Interlingual transfer
Intralingual transfer source
二． Reviewing SLA bases 1. Objectives of this unit Definition of language
Different views about language Nature of language learning Understanding of L1 acquisition 2. What is language?
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. (Wardhaugh, 1977)
3. Different views about language
Those different views about language help to give different definition of language.
It might be safe to say that different views of linguists can be the reflection of the nature of
language itself. The primitive views
1. language is an organism 2. language is writing
3. language is conventional The structuralism view Language is speech
Language is a structural system Language is an arbitrary system The functionalist view
1. The instrumental function 2. The interactional function 3. The interpersonal function 4. The other (page 14) 4.The nature of Learning
Learning explained by Longman Dictionary:
“acquiring or getting of knowledge of a subject or skill, by study, experience, or instruction.” Kimble & Garmezy(1963)
“Learning is a relatively permanent change in a behavioral tendency and is the result of reinforced practice”
Brown (1994) defines learning more precisely: 1) acquisition or getting
2) retention of knowledge, information, or skill 3) storage systems, memory, and cognition
4) active, conscious focus on and acting upon events outside or inside the organism 5) relatively permanent, but subject to forgetting 6) involves some form of practice 7) learning is a change of behavior
Reber (1967) classified two types of learning:
Explicit learning ......... Explicit knowledge Implicit learning ......... Tacit (implicit) knowledge And thus, two kinds of knowledge:
Explicit knowledge and tacit knowledge 4. Theories in L1 Acquisition
Behaviorist learning theory (行为主义) (popular in the 1950s and 60s) The Nativist approach （内在论） The Cognitive approach （认知论） The Functional approach （功能观）
① 4.1 Behaviorist learning theory (popular in the 1950s and 60s) (1) B.F. Skinner, Watson
(2) Viewpoint: Language learning is a kind of behavior similar to other human behavior. Language is learnt in much the same way as anything else is learnt. 都是经过刺激→反应而逐渐形成习惯的结果 stimulus → organism → response ↓ ↓ ↓
input the learner imitation
e.g. ‘This is a pencil → ‘This is a pencil’. (3) four steps for a child to acquire his/her L1:
Imitation →reinforcement →repetition →habituation 模仿 强化 重复 成形
② The cognitive approach
(1) Pigget, (Swiss), Vygovsky, (Former Soviet) (2) viewpoint:
Children’s language development relies on their understanding of the world or cognition.
(3) it’s different from the nativist approach ③ L1 acquisition vs. FLL
1) physiological aspect 2) cognitive aspect 3) affective aspect
4) sociocultural aspect
5) learning condition
三．Analyzing Learner language Contents of learning Contrastive Analysis Error Analysis
Contrastive Interlanguage Analysis 1. Contrastive Analysis
① What is Contrastive analysis？
A systematic method of comparing two or more languages or subsystems of languages in order to determine both the differences and similarities between them.
② Hypothesis of contrastive analysis 1. The strong version
It is possible to contrast the system of one language (the grammar, phonology and lexicon) with the system of a second language in order to predict the difficulties which a speaker of the second language will have in learning the first language, and to construct reading materials to help her learn that language. 2. the weak version
Linguists only use the best linguistic knowledge available to tem to account for observed difficulties in L2 learning.
It does not require the prediction of those difficulties, and conversely, of those learning points that do not create any difficulties.
It only tries to explain those difficulties. 3. Procedures of CA 1 Description
a formal description of the relevant features of each language compared. 2. Selection
a selection of subsystems predicted to present difficulty in order to establish the comparability.
3. Comparison and contrast
the identification of areas of difference and similarity; and 4. Prediction
identification of possible areas that cause errors. ③ Error Analysis What is EA? It aims to
1) find out how well the learners know about his language;
2) find out how the learners learn an L2;
3) obtain information on common difficulties in L2 learning;
4) Serve as an aid in teaching or in the preparation and compilation of teaching Defining errors
Till now, there is still controversy of how language error is. However, it is still possible to provide a more safe definition of error.
Based on many scholars, we could define error as:
the incorrect or inappropriate use or comprehension of the target language, which seems to be deviant from what regarded as the norm by native speakers because of the factors like language differences and similarities, language transfer, ignorance, forgetting, anxiety, false learning strategies, etc. The Nature of Errors
To do a good job in the study of errors, its’ essential to understand what the error is. The nature of an error could not merely be accounted for as “failure in habit-formation” as argued by behaviorists or “distance” between learners’ UG (Universal Grammar) and the TL (Target Language) as appealed by mentalists. In fact, errors could appear because of various factors concerning language learning, and the nature of an error will be different accordingly.
Aspect of Knowledge
students have to learn many rules or principles of the target language by formal instruction, and naturally, the lack of the related knowledge of target language will directly result in errors.
For example, if learners haven’t mastered the rules of passive voice or subjunctive mood, it’s hard for them to recollect the required knowledge from memory and therefore, errors are inevitable.
Aspect of Cognition
As a matter of fact, where rate is concerned, there is evidence that older learners are better than younger ones in understanding the language. Therefore, it is natural to see that as to some complex items, younger learners tend to make errors easily.
It is just for the same reason that we could not expect the learner at the beginning stage to master the “subjunctive mood” or even more complicated Aspect of Affection
Learners’ affection in fact plays an important role in learning, which no one can ignore. Negative influence on learners’ affection will directly result in decline of learning innately, which could be manifested in various aspects.
Students’ anxiety, self-esteem, lower motivation as well as some other affective factors will for sure lead to errors to some extent if treated inappropriately. How to deal with errors Collecting describing Identifying Analyzing Evaluation Correction
Error Treatment
Correction must be carried out according to the situation delicately. In an effective correction, factors like the teacher, students, peers, etc. must be considered comprehensively. In all, there are at least the following ways for teachers to choose:
Providing Useful Feedback Self-Correction Peer Correction
Dynamic Teacher Correction
Establishing Students’ Error Portfolio
四．Identify Learner Difference Contents of this chapter 1. Learning Styles 2. Learning Strategies 3. Language aptitude 4. Learning Intelligence 5. Learning motivation 6. Learning personality 7. Learning age 1. Learning Styles
1.1 Definition of Learning Styles
Learning style refers to the way a learner likes to learn. It is put into action by specific learning strategies.
According to Gass (2008), learning style is the preferences that an individual has of obtaining, processing, and retaining information. In other words, how do individuals approach the task
of learning? The term learning style is often used interchangeably with personality, although the former is undoubtedly more variable, whereas the latter refers to a stable trait of an individual. 1.2 What are the necessary aspects?
According to Oxford and Anderson (1995), there are six interrelated aspects: 1) The cognitive aspect: preferred or habitual patterns of mental functioning
2) The executive aspect: the extent to which learners look for order, organization, and closure in managing the learning processes.
3) The affective aspect: attitudes, beliefs, and values that influence what the learner focus on most.
4) The Social aspect: the preferred degree of involvement with other people in learning.
5) The physiological element: involves what are at least partly based on sensory and perceptual tendencies of the learners.
6) The behavioral aspect: tendency to actively seek situations compatible with their own learning preferences. 1.3 Types of learning styles
1) Visual learner: through seeing…
Visual learner need to see the teacher’s body language and facial expression to understand the content—sitting in the front
Think in pictures and learn best from visual displays: diagrams, illustrated text books, videos, flipcharts and hand-outs
Take notes to get the information. 2) Audio learner: through listening…
Learn best through verbal lectures, discussions, talking things through, listening to others Get meaning through listening to tone of voice, pitch, speed and other nuances. Written information may have little sense until it is heard. Often benefit from reading aloud and using tape recorder. 3) Hands-On learner: through doing…
Learn best through hands-on appraoch, active exploring the physical world around them.
It’s hard for them to sit still for long periods and may become distracted by their need for activity and exploration.
4) Analytic vs. Global:
attentive to details or summative
Analytic:Tend to think and analyze; prefer contrastive analysis and discrimination, not sensitive to social/affective factors, often focus on grammar
Global:avoid analysis, can converse without knowing all the words, sensitive to the social-emotional content 5) Extrovert vs Introvert: talkative or silent
Extrovert:Energized by the outside world, interaction-oriented, outgoing, broad interests, tend to reflect later.
Introvert :Energized by the inner world, prefer concentration; focus on thoughts and concepts, fewer interests, but deep ones, reflective
The typical extrovert is social , like parties, needs to have people to talk to, and does not like
studying by himself. He craves excitement, takes chances, often sticks his neck out, and is generally an impulsive individual. He always has a ready answer, and generally likes changes.
The typical introvert, on the other hand, is a quiet, retiring sort of person, introspective, fond
of books rather than people; he is reserved and distant, except with intimate friends. He tends to plan ahead and distrusts the impulse of the moment. He does not like excitement, takes matters of everyday life with proper seriousness, and likes a well-ordered life. 6) Intuitive vs. Sequential with or without directions
Intuitive:Look for possibilities, follow hunches and go by feel than be constrained by guidelines. Sequential:Like to work in a step-by-step manner; follow directions carefully, tend to linear and sensory-oriented.
7) Closure-Oriented vs. Open-Oriented: in a flexible or rigid manner
Closure:Love to make lists and follow them; want immediate closure and control; low tolerance for ambiguity, want to know answers immediately, hardworking and decisive, prefer to plan, see deadlines as helpful.
Open:Think learning should be fun, can make work into play, make lists, but don’t check off each item, be flexible, spontaneous, open to change, high tolerance for ambiguity, see deadline as artificial and arbitrary
8) Impulsive vs. Reflective: aggressive or careful
Impulsive: process material at a high speed with low accuracy, take risks and guesses
Reflective: process material at a low speed but high frequency, avoid risk-taking and guessing. 9) Field independence vs. field dependence: focus on part or whole
Field independence场独立: be able to handle the language parts as well as the whole without being distracted.
Field dependence场依赖: need context to focus and understand something; take each language part one at a time: cannot see the trees for the forest. 2. Learner strategies
“Give people a fish and you feed them for a day; teach them to fish and you feed them for
life. ”
给人以鱼，一日食鱼;授人予渔，终身得鱼。 1. Improve learners’ leaning proficiency.
2. Make their learning more effective and help them become successful language learners. 3. Benefit their life-long learning and independent learning. 2.1 What is learner’s strategy?
That is the specific techniques used by the language learner in learning and using language. 2.1.1 Definition of learning strategies
Specific techniques that we employ in dealing with learning a language. That is, how to process, store, and retrieve what we have learned in the brain. 研究者们从不同角度、不同侧重点给策略分类。 1. Oxford将策略分为直接策略和间接策略（ direct and indirect ）；2. O’Malley and Chamot’ 将策略分为原认知策略 ( mata-cognitive strategies、认知策略 (cognitive strategies)和社会/情感策略 (social /affective strategies)。 2. 直接影响学习的策略
3. 记忆策略： 联想、利用图像和声音、有计划的复习、使用体态语 4. 认知策略：操练、接收和发出信息、分析和推理、为输入和输出构建框架 5. 补偿策略：合理猜测、拟补缺欠和不足 间接影响学习的策略
原认知策略：制定学习重点、计划并安排学习、评估学习效果 情感策略：克服焦虑、鼓励自己、控制情绪 社交策略：提问、与他人合作、理解他人 （根据Oxford, 1990） 元认知策略
事先计划、选择注意力、自我管理、自我监控、自我评价等 认知策略
使用参考资料、重复、分类、推理、利用图像、利用关键词、联想、做笔记、小结、重新组合、翻译等
（根据O’Mally & Chamot, 1990） 2.2 Classification of learning strategies Criteria: cognition pattern
2.2.1 Meta-cognitive strategies: about the procedure Organize /plan
Manage Monitor Evaluate
2.2.2 Cognitive strategies: about the action
Repetition, resourcing, grouping, not-taking, deduction, recombination, imagery, auditory representation, keyword, contextualization, elaboration, transfer, inferencing
2.2.3 Socio-affective strategies
Activities students used to get more opportunities to be exposed to and practice their knowledge. (Oxford, 1995)
Cooperation
Questions for clarification
2.3 Good language learning strategies What are good learning strategies? Types of good learning strategies ? Active planning
academic/explicit learning strategies, social affective strategies affective-strategies.
How to make students be good strategies user? (after reading the content) Good language learner’s strategies and effective learning a concern for language form
a concern for communication (functional practice) an active task approach
an awareness of the learning process
a capacity to use strategies flexibly in accordance with task requirements
Major factors that influence learning strategies Internal factors
Age, intelligence, personality, cognitive style, motivation, attitude, etc. External factors
teachers’ influence, teaching materials, teaching methods, teaching environment, etc. 2.4 Learning strategies and learner autonomy 1) taking risks wisely
Pushing oneself to take a risk in a language class, even though there is a chance of making a mistake or looking foolish.
2) remembering new language info according to its sound
You think of a word in your L1 and try to associate the two words (in L1 and L2) 3) Finding out about language learning
Making efforts to find out how language learning works by reading books and talking with other people, and then using this information to help improve one’s own langguage learning.
4) cooperating with peers
Working with peers can involve a regular learning partner of a temporary pair of small group. 5) switching to the mother tongue
Using the mother tongue for an expression without translating it, as in Ich bin eine girl.
6) Repeating
Saying or doing something over and over: listenging to something several times; rehearsing; imitating a native speaker.
2.5. Implications for English learners
1. exploit the good language learner strategies that are useful to the students.
2. develop the students’ independence from the teacher with learning or self-directed learning.
3. make students aware of the range of strategies that can adopt 4. provide specific trainning in metacognitive strategies.
5. Remember the similarities and differences between learning an L2 and learning other subjects.
Good learning strategies lead to autonomy
2.6 Theoretical justification of strategies training 1. The cognitive perspective Skill development
2. The educational perspective the whole person development
3. The social constructivist perspective Knowledge accumulation
2.7 Learning strategies as skills Two stages
Declarative stage: What are they? Procedural stage: How to use them? The National English Curriculum 2.9 The role of the teacher
1. Find out students’ strategies used before and the strategies proved to be successful or less successful
2. Help expand the students’ repertoire of strategies 3. Provide the students with opportunities to practice
4. Encourage the students to monitor and evaluate their strategy use
英语新课程标准中的课程目标 Language knowledge 语言知识
Language skills 语言技能 Affect attitude 情感态度 Learning strategies 学习策略 Culture awareness 文化意识
学习策略训练方法
讲座式 研讨式
教材指导式 例如：高中新教材 教学活动式 个别指导式
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