Text A The Origin of Management管理的起源 Pre-reading Task Read the following questions first, which will help you understand the text below better, and then answer the questions after reading the text carefully.
先看看下面的问题，这些问题将有助于你更好地理解后面的课文，仔细地读完课文后再回答这些问题。
l. Why did Kenneth Feld consider management as \"the greatest job on earth\"? 为什么肯尼斯-费尔德把管理看做地球上最伟大的工作？
2. How can work be done most efficiently according to your opinion based on management knowledge? 根据自己的管理知识，你认为怎样工作才能最有效率？
3. What is the real meaning of the phrase – “management theory jungle”? 术语“管理理论丛林”的真正含义是什么？
4. Why is Frederick Winslow Taylor regarded as the Father of Scientific Management? 为什么人们把弗雷德里克-温斯洛-泰勒视作科学管理之父？
5. What is the main idea of Taylor's famous book, The Principles of Scientific Management? 泰勒著名的《科学管理原理》一书，主要观点是什么？ TEXT Dating back to the ancient times, we may discover that the basic principles of management had their beginnings in the birth of civilization, when people first began to live in groups and first sought to improve their lot in life. Ever since people began forming groups to accomplish aims they could not achieve as individuals, managing has been essential to ensure the coordination of individual efforts. Kenneth Feld, president of Ringling Bro. and Barnum & Bailey Circus, once described management as \"the greatest job on earth\
追溯到古代时候，我们可以发现管理的基本原理在文明起源之时就已经开始了（存在了），（在那时）当人们最早开始群体生活，最早寻求改善生活。自从那时起，人们开始组成群体团队来完成个人不能完成的目标，而管理已经成为确保个人努力相互协调的必要手段。肯尼斯-费尔德，一位林林兄弟-巴纳姆-贝利马戏团的老板（董事长），曾经把管理描述为地球上最伟大的工作，因为管理是人类活动中最重要的一种。
A.1 Management History 管理历史
Throughout history, people have faced great challenges and have set themselves far-reaching goals, and therefore have combined intuition, experience, and trial-and-error methods to meet these challenges and accomplish the goals. The experience and ideas of yesterday's managers form the foundation for today's principles of management. By understanding the challenges they faced and the ideas they used to meet, we may be better able to meet present challenges. The learning process is continuous. As the philosopher Soren Kierkegaard wrote, \"Life can only be understood backwards, but it must be lived for forwards.\"
贯穿历史，人们一直面对着巨大挑战，还要给自己设定深远的目标，因此需要人们综合运用直觉、经验和反复实验的方式来满足这些挑战和完成这些目标。这些昨日（过去）的管理经验（经历）和管理观念形成了今天管理原理的基础。这个学习过程是连续的，就像丹麦的哲学家（神学家）祁克果（克尔凯戈尔）写的那样，生活仅仅是理解过去，但是生活必须为未来而存在。
As Kierkegaard's statement suggests, the knowledge that we apply to current problems is derived from the solutions to yesterday's problems and challenges. With the emergence of assembly line techniques, mass 1 / 11
production was developed to allow a goal (high output) to be achieved using less time, money, and labor. It was an innovation that has been applied by countless managers and organizations since then. People who have managed organizations have been concerned with increasing productivity, improving performance, and learning new and better ways to accomplish objectives. Management practice and research have been aimed at improving managers' ability to perform better in all three areas of responsibility: technical, administrative, and institutional.
就像祁克果的陈述提议那样，我们应用解决现在问题的知识源于过去（昨日）问题和挑战的解决手段及方法。随着（工厂的生产）装配流水线技术的出现，大规模生产得以发展，允许人们用较少的时间、金钱和劳动力来完成一个高产量的目标。自此之后，这种（装配流水线的生产）革命被无数管理者和组织使用。管理企业组织人们已经关心增加生产率、提高业绩和学习新的和更好的完成组织目标的方法。管理实践和研究已经瞄准了在技术、管理和制度等三个责任领域，如何提高改善管理者能力来工作的更好。
Historically, the first set of issues dealt with by practitioners and management writers was productivity: how to accomplish tasks or work more rapidly and efficiently. Much of the effort focused on helping managers perform their technical responsibilities. Though modem managers have much more sophisticated tools for production, they all still share the same concern: How can work be done most efficiently?
历史上，管理实践家和管理理论家最早处理的一组管理议题是生产率：怎样更快速更有效第完成任务或工作。人们大量的努力都集中在帮助管理者完成他们技术（专业）上的责任（任务）。事实上，尽管当代管理者有更加复杂老练的生产工具，他们仍然都要参与（关心）同一个的重要的事情：怎样工作才能最有效率？
Then the second set of issues laid emphases on how the whole organization, rather than each individual, could become more productive. There are two parallel developments here. Some researchers put stress on improving an organization's performance by finding more effective ways to divide work among people and units and better ways to coordinate these efforts. That is, they focused on the way the organization itself was structured. Other researchers felt an organization's performance could be improved if its employees were more motivated to do their work. Thus, researchers tried to determine how feelings and attitudes affected the performance of the work force. Researchers and writers began to study organizational structure and behavioral issues, which were and are particularly important to the managers with administrative responsibilities.
接下来，第二组管理议题将重点放在整个组织怎样变得更多产，而不是个人的事情。这儿有两个平行发展的研究方向。其一，一些研究者强调提高组织绩效，通过发现更有效的方式把工作细分（分工）到个人和单位，找到更好的方式协调这些努力。也就是说，这些人的研究重点是某些组织本身构建的方式。其二，另一些研究者认为一个组织的绩效的提高可以通过激励该组织的员工努力做自己的工作来完成。因此，这些人试图测定情感和态度是如何影响工厂劳动力的工作绩效的。研究员和作家开始研究组织结构和（人类）行为学问题，这些问题对于负有管理职责的管理者来说尤其重要。
第二类问题研究整个企业而非个人的工作效率，这里涉及两个同时进行的项目。一些研究者试图找到更为有效的方法，给个人和部门分配工作，并找到更好的方法做好协调，从而提高企业的整体效率，也即他们研究企业的运作结构。另一些研究者则致力于雇员的主动性和工作效率之间的关系问题的研究，他们试图由此探讨情感和态度如何影响雇员的工作效率。研究者和著书立说者着手研究企业和行为问题。这些问题对于管理人员来说尤为关键。
And the third set of issues is broader and concerns guiding and directing the whole organization and managing it as a system that is influenced by its environment. These are institutional issues. Modern managers must give equal thought to the purpose of the organization and its relationship to society. Nowadays managers are charged with the responsibility of taking action that will enable individuals to make their best contributions 2 / 11
to the group objectives. Management thus applies to small and large organizations, to profit and not-for-profit enterprises, to manufacturing as well as service industries.
第三组管理议题比较广泛，关系（涉及）到引导和指导整个组织，并把这个组织作为一个受其周围环境影响的有机系统进行管理。这些话题都是制度性议题。当代管理者必须同等地考虑组织目标（目的）和组织与社会之间的关系这两个话题。如今的管理者有责任（承担的责任是）采取措施使个人（员工）尽自己的最大努力为组织目标做出贡献。因此，管理应用到了大组织和小组织、盈利性的企业和非营利性单位、制造业和服务性行业。
By understanding how managers have solved problems and accomplished major feats throughout history, many different contributions of researcher and practitioners have resulted in different approaches to management, and these make up a \"management theory jungle\analysis and what can be done to untangle the jungle. In addition, we will highlight Frederick Taylor's scientific management, Henri Fayol's modern operational management theory, and Elton Mayo and F. J. Roethlisberger's Hawthorne studies.
通过理解历史上的管理者如何解决问题和完成主要业绩（功绩、伟业），我们发现有许多管理研究者和实践家的贡献，并产生了各式各样的进入管理的途径和方法，这些组成了管理理论丛林，各式各样的管理分析模式和的整理管理丛林的所要做的事情。此外，我们将强调（关注）泰勒（泰罗）的科学管理、亨利法约尔的现代经营管理理论（一般管理理论）、埃尔顿-梅奥和F.J.洛兹里斯伯格的霍桑试验。
Father of Scientific Management科学管理之父
Frederick Winslow Taylor, the father of scientific management, was born on March 20, 1865, into an upper class liberal Philadelphia family. At the age of 25, Taylor earned an engineering degree at the Stevens Institute of Technology in New Jersey while holding a full time job. To date, no one has broken that record.
弗雷德里克-温斯洛-泰勒，科学管理之父，1865年3月20日出生于美国费城的一个上层自由开放的家庭。在他25岁时，泰勒（通过业余学习）获得(美国大西洋沿岸)新泽西州斯蒂文斯理工（科技）学院的工程学学位，同时获得了一份全职工作，迄今为止，没有人打破这个记录。
Taylor's work was taking place in a time period when there was much industrial change happening after the Civil War. National industries grew out of local trades -- steel, glass, textiles, and shoes and what were small factories became large plants. Owners of capital became wealthier with mass production, and workers received little for their efforts. Problems included carelessness, safety, inefficiencies, and soldiering on the job. Taylor sought to get past the futile incentive bonuses that management thought would remedy the problems. He believed that incentive wages were no solution unless they were combined with efficient tasks that were carefully planned and easily learned. He proposed that management should work cooperatively in a supportive role. Taylor seemed to have some definite ideas about work and how it should be studied, organized, and rewarded, but he also knew something about the organizational change.
泰勒的工作发生在美国南北战争之后出现大量产业变化的时期（一个时间段）。国民工业产生于当地钢材、玻璃、纺织品、鞋子等贸易，小工厂也就变成大工厂。资本所有者（投资者、股东）随着大规模生产变得更富有，工人付出很多努力而回报甚少。问题在于工作上的粗心大意、安全顾忌、无效率和磨洋工。泰勒越过无效的激励红利制度，寻找补救纠正问题的管理思想和观点。他认为（增产）奖励工资制度是不能解决问题方案，除非把工人和经过仔细计划和容易学习的有效工作任务结合在一起。他提议管理应该通过彼此合作来发挥支持性的作用（充当……角色）。泰勒好像有了一些关于工作的明确概念，以及应该怎样研究、组织、奖赏工作的东西，当然他也知道组织变化的一些事情。
Taylor believed that the secret of productivity was finding the right challenge for each person, and then paying him well for increased output. At the Midvale Steel Company, he used time studies to set daily
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production quotas, and finally introduced piece work in the factory. His goal was to find the most efficient way to perform specific tasks. He closely watched how work was done and would then measure the quantity produced.
泰勒认为生产效率的秘密在于为每一个人（员工）发现找到恰当的挑战，并因个人产量的增加而支付他们更多的工资。在（美国）米德韦尔钢铁公司，泰勒用测时试验（工作定额研究）设定每日生产定额（工作）量，最后在 工厂里引入（形成）计件工作。他的目标是发现最有效的（工作、生产）方式来完成特定的任务。他紧密地观察（工人）怎样工作，并测量（他们）生产的数量。
Incentives would be paid to those reaching their daily goal. Those who didn't reach their goal would get the differential rate, a much lower pay. Taylor doubled productivity using time study, systematic controls and tools, functional foremanship, and his new wage scheme.
奖励那些达到每日工作目标的工人。而那些没有达到日工作目标的工人将得到不同工资率，按照低得多的工资率获得工资。泰勒通过使用测时研究、系统化的控制和工具、职能领班制度、他的新工资发放方案使生产效率翻了一倍。
At age thirty-seven, Frederick became a consulting engineer. As he attached great importance to cost cutting methods, at the Simonds Roller Beating Company he successfully increased productivity while improving speed and accuracy. Taylor's critics said he was too harsh because his innovative plan caused people to lose their jobs, referring to his replacing of 120 workers with only 35 at Simonds. In practice, Taylor \"took a harsh, often ruthless approach\" to chopping heads rather than saving jobs. He believed that unions wouldn't be necessary if workers were paid their individual worth.
泰勒在37岁时，他成为了一名咨询工程师。因为他非常重视成本消减方法，所以他在西蒙兹滚子轴承公司成功地提高了生产效率并提高了生产速度和精确性。泰勒的批评家说泰勒太粗暴，谈到西蒙兹公司用35名工人代替120名工人时，他的革新性的计划导致人们丢失了工作。实践中，泰勒采用一个粗暴、冷酷无情的方法“砍掉人的脑袋”而不是保留工作。他认为如果工人都按照自己的劳动力价值支付工资，那么工会将不必要存在了。
As a consultant, Frederick's most important client was Bethlehem Iron Company, later known as Bethlehem Steel Company. In 1901, he and another Stevens graduate made Bethlehem \"the world's most modern factory and potentially a prototype for manufacturers and engineers in other industries\" by installing production planning, differential piece rates, and functional foremanship. Among Taylor's other contributions to Bethlehem in 1901 were a real time analysis of daily output and costs, a modern cost accounting system, reduced yard worker's ranks from 500 to 140, doubled stamping mill production, and lowered cost per ton of materials handled from eight cents to four cents. He successfully implemented cost saving techniques even though he added clerks, teachers, time-study engineers, supervision and staffing support positions. While at Bethlehem, Taylor and Manusel White codeveloped the Taylor-White system for heat treating chrome-tungsten tool steel, which won Frederick international recognition.
作为一个管理顾问，弗雷德里克（泰勒）的最重要的顾客是伯利恒铸铁公司，也就是后来著名的伯利恒钢铁公司。在1901年，泰勒和另一个史蒂文斯学院的大学毕业生通过安置生产计划、差别计件工资率和职能领班制度等方法制造了伯利恒“世界上最现代的工厂，潜在为其他产业的生产商和工程师提供了一个原型（样本）”。泰勒在1901年带给伯利恒的贡献是每日产量和成本真实的时间分析报告、现代成本会计制度、减少（堆料场的）劳动力数量500到140、模锻磨粉机的生产效率翻倍、把每吨原料处理成本由8分钱降到4分钱。他仍然成功地贯彻实施了成本节省技术，尽管他增加了办事员、教师（培训工人）、测时工程师、监督和员工安置等支持岗位。同时，在伯利恒，泰勒和芒塞尔-怀特共同发展了泰勒-怀特系统，用其高温处理铬[ge]钨钢的工具钢，由此弗雷德里克（泰勒）赢得国际认可（赞同）。
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Taylor's famous book, The Principles of Scientific Management, was written from transcripts of talks Taylor gave at his estate years and was published in 1911. The fundamental principles that Taylor saw underlying the scientific approach to management are as follows:
泰勒出版于1911年的著名著作《科学管理原理》来自于他人生后期的演讲稿。泰勒所认识到的从根本上科学地走近管理的基本原则如下：
~ Replacing rules of thumb with science (organized knowledge). 用科学（系统化的知识）代替单凭经验的方法。
~ Obtaining harmony, rather than discord, in group action.
在群体（团队）行动中追求和谐协调而不是制造冲突、不协调。
~ Achieving cooperation of human beings, rather than chaotic individualism. 实现人与人之间的合作（集体主义）而不是混乱一团糟的个人主义 ~ Working for maximum output, rather than restricted output. 工作要追求产量最大化而不是限制产量。
~ Developing all workers to the fullest extent possible for their own and their company's highest prosperity.
培养所有员工为了自己和他们公司最大（高）繁荣（而努力工作）
You will notice that these basic precepts of Taylor's are not far from the fundamental beliefs of the modem managers, and besides, the system he indicated in his book is an actual composite of everything he had learned from trying different things at many companies. Taylor did what he could to fit as much of his thinking to his client's problems and motives for each particular situation. Consultants use this type of process today. He was the first person in history to make a systematic attempt to improve both output and work life in factories.
我们主要到泰勒的这些基本管理规则都没有远离（相差不大）现代管理者的基本管理信念，而且在他书中所表明的管理知识体系是他在许多公司试验各种事务时学习到的每一件事情的一个真实综合。泰勒所做的事情如同他所思考的那样多，其解决方案尽力适合（与满足）顾客的每一个特定环境下的问题和目的。如今的各种顾问都使用这种类型的（处理问题的）进程方法。泰勒是历史上第一个工厂里系统地尝试既提高产量又改善工人生活的实践者。
Taylor's core values are the rule of reason, improved quality, lower costs, higher wages, higher output, labor-management cooperation, experimentation, clear tasks and goals, feedback, training, mutual help and support, stress reduction, and the careful selection and development of people. He was the first to present a systematic study of interactions among job requirements, tools, methods, and human skill to fit people to jobs both psychologically and physically and to let data and facts do the talking rather than prejudice, opinions, or egomania.
泰勒（科学管理思想）的核心价值观是合理原则（合理的日工作量和报酬）、改进质量、低成本、高产量、劳动者与管理者合作、试验、明确任务和目标、反馈、培训、互相帮助和支持、减轻压力、精心挑选和发展员工。泰勒是第一个系统地研究工作要求、工具、方式和人际技能相互作用的人，从而让人们在心理上和身体上都适合相应的工作，让数据和事实说话而不是用偏见、意见和自大狂证明什么。
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Text B Father of Modern Management Theory 近代管理理论之父 Pre-reading Activities课前阅读 Read Text B carefully and then divide the class into groups. Choose one of the following topics to discuss in each group. Give a short report about the group's opinion after that.
仔细阅读课文B，然后把全班进行分组。每一个小组选择下面的一个话题进行讨论。最后每一组给出全组意见的简短报告。
1. Tell each other about modern management and classical management. 相互讲讲近代管理和古典管理的主要内容。 2. Please list Fayol's achievements. 请列出法约尔的功绩。
3. Tell about the advantages and disadvantages of Hawthorne Studies. 讲讲霍桑试验的优势和劣势。
4. How much do you know about the administration history? 你对管理史知道多少。
5. Talk about the functions of management. 讨论一下管理职能。 TEXT B.1 Father of Modem Management Theory 近代管理理论之父
Viewing administration history from an international perspective, we may point to Henri Fayol (1841-1925) as the \"Father of Modem Management Theory.\" Fayol wrote Administration Industrielle et Generale (Functions and Principles of Management ) in 1916, and the book was published in French in 1917. it was not until the book was translated into English in 1930, several years after his death that British and American managers began to take advantage of his contributions to the study of organizations.
用国际视角看看管理史，我们可以把亨利法约尔（1841-1925）称为近代管理理论之父。法约尔于1916年撰写了《工业管理与一般管理》一书（也叫《管理职能和原理》），并于1917年在法国出版这本书。直到1930年此书翻译成英文版，法约尔去世之后几年，英国和美国的管理者才开始利用他的贡献去研究各种组织。
Hired as an engineer by a French mining company, he worked his way up the ranks to manager, general manager, then member of the board of directors, so he was a successful engineer and a director of mines. In the year 1888 he was hired by Comambault as Director. Fayol saved the company from bankruptcy by using his ideas.
法约尔作为一名工程师曾受雇于一家法国矿业公司，他按照自己的工作方式使职衔逐步升职（work up to）至经理、董事会董事（成员），因此他是一个成功的工程师和矿井领导者。在1888年他被任命为科芒特里矿长。法约尔用自己的管理理念挽救了这家濒临破产的企业。
Fayol became a pioneer in the field of management thought, first for distinguishing managerial activity from all other activities in organizations, and second, for defining managerial activity in terms of its core functions. He describes them as follows: planning -- devising a course of actions; organizing -- mobilizing material and human resources; commanding -- providing direction to employees; coordinating -- making sure activities and resources are working well together toward the common goal; and controlling -- monitoring progress to ensure that plans are being carried out properly. These functions of management were to be carried out in all aspects of the organization: technical production, marketing, finance, accounting and secure.
法约尔成为了管理思想领域的先驱和开拓者，首先他把管理活动从组织的各种活动中区分出来，
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第二他用核心职能定义了各项管理活动。他把管理活动描述为以下内容：计划职能——设计行动方针；组织职能——调动人力资源和物力资源；命令（指挥）职能——给员工提供指导指示；协调职能——确保各种活动和资源很好地协调工作并指向共同目标；控制职能——监视各项事务的进展以确保计划恰当正确地实施。这些管理职能贯彻执行到组织的各个方面：生产技术活动、商业销售活动、财务活动、会计活动和安全活动等5个方面。
Fayol was also the first to offer a list of 14 principles of management to guide managers. Each of his principles is a general statement usually involving a single basic idea that can be applied in different kinds of organizations and in different ways. Though the 14 principles of management are presented, Fayol stressed the fact that administration was concerned with the human part of an undertaking. The following principles were to be applied in a flexible manner by administrators (managers) who could adapt them to the specific circumstance.
法约尔也是最早列出14条管理原则以指导管理者的。他的每一条管理原则就是一句普通的陈述，通常涉及一个基本的可以按照不同方式应用到不同种类组织的管理思想（理念）。尽管给出了14条原则，法约尔仍然强调管理是涉及到人们事业（成功与否）的事实。下面的原则能被管理者在特定的环境中灵活地应用：
1. Division of Labor: Through specialization of labor, maximum efficiency can be achieved. （劳动）分工：通过劳工专业化（劳动分工），实现效率最大化。
2. Authority and Responsibility: Authority is the right to command and the power. 权力和责任：权力是正确地命令他人的行为和能力。
3. Discipline: The essence of discipline is \"obedience, diligence, energy, correct attitude, and outward marks of respect, within the limits fixed by a concern (organization) and its employees.\"
纪律：纪律本质是“公司和它的员工之间确定的关于服从、勤奋、有活力、正确的态度、尊敬等方面的外在表示。
4. Unity of command: Everyone should have one, and only one, boss. 统一指挥（命令）：每一个员工应该有且只有一个上级。
5. Unity of direction: There should be only one manager and one plan for all operations of the same type. This assures consistency and responsibility.
统一领导原则：对同一种类型的所有操作活动应该只有一个管理者和一个计划。这样才能确保一致性和责任。
6. Subordination of Individual Interest to the Common Good: The goals of the organization take precedence over the goal of the individual.
个人利益服从整体利益：组织目标优先于个人目标。
7. Remuneration: Employees should be paid fairly for their work, and the payment should be an incentive to perform well and not lead to unreasonable rewards.
个人酬金：员工应该获得与其工作对等的报酬，酬金应该是激励员工很好工作的手段，而不能导致过多的酬金
8. Centralization: Authority and responsibility should not be too centralize in one manager. There should be enough delegation to others that subordinates are encouraged to work well, yet enough centralization to ensure accountability within the organization.
集中化原则：权力和责任不应该太集中在一个管理者身上。应该给其他人充足的授权，从而激励这些下属很好地工作，当然足够的集中化能确保组织内员工承担相应的责任和义务。
9. Hierarchy: The line of authority in an organization (scalar chain) runs from top to bottom in a straight line. Communications should normally follow this path, although administrators should be able to
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communicate across the organization to their peers at the same level of authority.
等级制度：在一个（等级链）组织内权力线从上到下贯穿成一条直线。组织内的沟通在正常情况下应该遵循这条路径进行，而管理者在特殊情况下应该能跨越组织和同级别的同事（同辈人）沟通交流。
10. Order: To run well, an organization should have a place for everything and everything should be in its place.
秩序原则：（包括物品的秩序原则和人的社会秩序原则）为了很好地运作，一个组织应该给每一个事物（人）留下适合的位置，而任何事物（人）都应该自己的位置上
11. Equity: The organization runs best when there is friendliness among employees and managers and when managers act fairly toward others.
公平原则：当管理者对其他人公平处理事务时，在管理者和员工之间充满友善亲切感时，组织就会运转的最好。
12. Stability of Staff: Employee turnover is unhealthy for organizations. Good administration encourages commitment and long-term associations from employees.
人员稳定原则：员工流动（流失）对组织来说是不健康的。好的管理方式能激励员工长期合作和奉献于企业。
13. Initiative: Subordinates should be given the opportunity and freedom to conceive and execute a plan, even if it sometimes fails.
首创精神：应该给下属一定的机会和自由去设想和执行一个计划，即使有时候会失败。
14. Esprit de corps: The morale of an organization's people is an asset and should be cultivated and encouraged by administrators whenever possible.
团队精神：一个组织内员工的士气是一项重要资产和财富，管理者只要有可能就应该培育和激励士气。
B.2 Hawthorne Studies 霍桑试验
Elton Mayo ( 1880-1949 ), F. J. Roethlisberger and other researchers undertook the famous experiments at the Hawthorne plant of the Western Electric Company between 1927 and 1932. So the Hawthorne Studies refer to a group of studies conducted at the Hawthorne plant whose results ultimately led to the human relations view of management, a behavioral approach that emphasized concern for the worker. To understand their significance, we need to trace the studies from their beginning.
1927年到1932年埃尔顿-梅奥（1880-1949），F.J.罗特利斯伯格和其他研究者在美国芝加哥西方电气公司霍桑工厂承担了一项举世闻名的试验。因此，霍桑试验指的是在霍桑工厂里进行的最终结果导致人群关系管理学说的团队研究，这项研究是强调关心工人的行为研究法（学派）。
When they started, the Hawthorne Studies reflected the scientific management tradition of seeking greater efficiency by improving the tools and methods of work -- in this case, lighting. The General Electric Company wanted to sell more light bulbs, so along with other electric companies, it supported studies on the relationship between lighting and productivity that were to be conducted by the National Research Council. The tests were to be held at the Hawthorne Works (Chicago) of the Western Electric Company, an equipment-producing subsidiary of AT&T. Ultimately, three sets of studies were done. 当梅奥他们开始研究时，霍桑试验考虑科学管理的惯例：通过改善工作工具和方法，比如说照明强度，来寻找增加生产效率的方法。通用电气公司想卖出更多的(白炽灯的)灯泡，因此连同其他电子公司支持研究照明强度与生产效率之间的关系，这是在美国国家研究委员会资助下进行的研究。其余的研究都是在芝加哥西方电子公司霍桑工厂进行的，西方电子公司是供应美国电话电报公司生产设备的
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一个子公司。最终，这个研究小组做了三组实验性研究。[朗讯科技公司(由以前的西方电气公司和AT&T贝尔实验室组成)]
B.2.1. The first set of studies, called the Illumination Studies, took place between 1924 and 1927 under the direction of several engineers. In one of these studies, light was decreased over successive periods for the experimental group (the group for whom the lighting was altered ), while light was held at a constant level for the control group ( a comparison group working in a separate area ). In both groups, performance rose steadily, even though the lighting for the experimental group became so dim that the workers complained that they could hardly see. At that point, performance in the experimental group finally began to decline. The researchers concluded that factors other than lighting were at work ( since performance rose in both groups), and the project was discontinued. In retrospect, one possibility based on the records of the studies is that the experimental and control groups were in contact and may have begun competing with each other.
第一组研究叫做照明实验，是于1924年-1927年在几个工程师的指导下进行的。在其中的一次研究中，让光线发生改变的实验组在连续时间段内降低照明光亮（光线亮度和强度），让工作在隔离区域的控制组（对比组）的照明保持一个恒定的水平。在这两组中，工人们的业绩稳固地增加，即使当实验组的光线变得昏暗以至于工人们抱怨他们几乎看不清的时候。在那时（直到工人看不清的时候），实验组的业绩最终开始下降。研究者们得出结论：影响生产效率的因素不是工作时的照明，因为两组（实验组和控制组）的业绩都在增加，因此原有试验计划（方案）不能继续。回想起来，基于试验记录的一种可能是实验组和控制组之间有联系，他们可能已经开始相互的生产比赛。
B.2.2. Intrigued with the positive changes in productivity, some of the engineers and company officials decided to attempt to determine the causes through further studies. Accordingly, a second set of experiments took place between 1927 and 1933. The most famous study involved five women who assembled electrical relays in the Relay Assembly Test Room, where they were away from other workers and the researchers could alter work conditions and evaluate the results. Before the study began, the researchers were apparently concerned about possible negative reactions from the workers who would be included in the experiment. To lessen potential resistance, the researchers changed the usual supervisory arrangement so that there would be no official supervisor. Instead, the workers would operate under the general direction of the experimenters. The workers were also given special privileges, such as being able to leave their workstation without permission, and they received considerable attention from the experimenters and company officials. The study was aimed at exploring the best combination of work and rest periods, but a number of other factors were also varied (sometimes simultaneously), such as pay, length of workday, and provisions for free lunches. Generally, productivity increased over the period of the study, regardless of how the factors under consideration were manipulated.
一些工程师和公司官员（经理主管）对生产效率的积极变化非常好奇，他们决定尝试通过进一步的研究来确定这种变化的缘由。于是，在1927年—1933年进行了第二组试验。最著名的研究涉及到5个妇女，她们在继电器组装测试室组装电子继电器，在那里她们远离其他工人，研究者改变工作条件并评估结果。在研究开始之前，研究者显然很关心来自试验中的工人们的可能带来的消极反应。为了减少潜在的抵制（情绪），研究者改变了通常的监督安排，以至于去掉了企业官方的监督者。代替的是工人在实验者的大致方向下进行操作。同时也给予这几个工人一些特权，比如她们可以在没有许可的情况下离开工作间，还受到了公司官方当局和实验者的相当多的关注。研究的目标是探测最佳的工作组合及最佳的休息周期。但是也改变了其他一些因素，有时是同时地改变，比如工资、工作日的长度、免费供应的午餐等。概括地讲，在试验期间生产效率都是增加的，不管研究者所考虑的影响因素如何巧妙地改变。
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A Harvard University research group ultimately concluded that the change in the supervisory arrangement was the major reason for the increase in productivity in the Relay Assembly Test Room study and in two related studies involving different work groups. The researchers felt that the physical changes, such as rest periods, free lunches, and shortened hours, as well as the group incentive pay plans, were factors of lesser importance ( largely because adverse changes in some of these factors did not seem to decrease performance ).
哈佛大学的研究团最终断定监督安排上的变化是继电器组装测试室研究和涉及不同工作组的两个相关研究的生产效率增加的主要原因。研究者认为物质（物理）条件的变化，比如休息周期、免费午餐、缩短工作时间，以及小组奖励薪酬计划（奖金计划）等，都是相对不太重要的因素，主要因为这些因素的部分因素的相反变化好像并没有减少降低业绩。
Since the supervisory arrangement had been set up by the researchers before the study began, this change was not actually part of the study manipulations and was not intended to affect the results. One outcome of the studies was the identification of a famous concept that ultimately came to be known as the Hawthorne effect. The Hawthorne effect is the possibility that individuals singled out for a study may improve their performance simply because of the added attention they receive from the researchers, rather than because of any specific factors being tested in the study.
在试验开始之前，研究者就已经设立这种监督安排，这种变化不是研究处理的主要部分，也不打算影响试验结果。试验的一个结果就是认同了一个著名的后来被称为“霍桑效应”的概念。霍桑效应是指个人被挑选出来参加一项研究试验而可能提高他们的业绩，原因仅仅是由于他们收到了来自研究者增加的关注，而不是因为试验中的任何特殊的试验因素。
More contemporary investigations now suggest that the Hawthorne-effect concept is too simplistic to explain what happened during the Hawthorne studies and that the concept itself is defective. It now appears likely that the results obtained at the Hawthorne plant stemmed from the fact that the workers interpreted what was going on around them differently from the researchers ( rather than from the idea that the workers reacted positively simply because of attention from the researchers ). The workers most likely viewed the altered supervision as an important positive change in their work environment, even though that was not what the researchers intended.
现在更多的调查研究暗示（建议）霍桑效应的概念过于单纯化而不能解释霍桑试验期间所发生的事情，并且概念本身也有缺陷。现在看来，在霍桑工厂获得的结果可能源于一个事实：结果源于工人们对他们周围将要发生的事情的理解而不是源于研究者的关注，即结果不是源于工人积极反应仅仅是因为研究者关注的观点。工人们更可能把监督方式的改变看成他们工作环境的一个重要的积极变化，尽管这并不是研究者们所想要的（企图）。（view……as……认为）
B.2.3. The third set of Hawthorne Studies built on the emerging findings of the second set. It included the famous Bank Wiring Observation Room study (1931- 1932), which involved a group of male workers. Studying the group provided knowledge about informal social relations within groups and about the use of group norms to restrict output when doing so seems advantageous to the group.
第三组霍桑试验是建立在第二组试验出现的结果（发现）基础上的。试验包括(1931年- 1932年)著名的继电器绕线组的工作室试验，其中涉及的是一组男性工人。研究这个小组发现小组内部存在非正式的社会关系，并且当有利于团队时，小组内会使用团体规范（内部规范）限制（个人）产量。
As a result of the Hawthorne Studies, the focus of the field of management was drastically altered. In strong contrast to the impersonality that characterized the classical approach, the Hawthorne Studies pointed to the impact that social aspects of the job had on productivity, particularly the effects of personal attention from supervisors and relationships among group members. As one writer has pointed out, \"No other theory or set of experiments has stimulated more research and controversy nor contributed mom to a change in management
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thinking than the Hawthorne studies and the human relations movement they spawned.\"
由于霍桑试验的结果，管理（学）领域的研究焦点戏剧性的发生了改变。与古典管理学派的冷淡、无人情味形成强烈对比，霍桑试验指出工作的社会环境（联系、因素）影响了生产效率，尤其是来自监督者对个人的关心（重视）和团队成员间的关系的影响
However flawed the studies, the Hawthorne research set the stage for intense interest in the social dimension of human behavior in organizations. The key to productivity from a managerial point of view appeared to lie in showing greater concern for workers so that they would feel more satisfied with their jobs and be willing to produce more. Emphasis was placed on building more collaborative and cooperative relationships between supervisors and workers. Consequently, managers now needed social skills in addition to technical skills. They also required a better understanding of how to make workers feel more satisfied with their jobs.
尽管这项研究有缺陷和瑕疵，霍桑研究者们还是为研究组织内的人类行为的社会维度方面产生巨大兴趣打下了基础。从管理的角度看，生产率的关键似乎在于对工人显示更大的关注（关心），以至于工人们将对他们的工作感觉更满意，愿意生产更多的（产品）。其重点在于在监管者与工人之间构建更多的协作和合作关系。因此，管理者现在除了需要技术技巧之外，还需要社会技巧。他们也需要一个较好地理解如何让工人们对他们的工作更满意。（set the stage for为…做好准备，为…创造条件，为…打下基础）
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