PPT红字部分名词解释+公式
Chapter2 The law of comparative advantage
1. P30 Mercantilism 重商主义
A group of men (merchants, bankers, government officials, and even philosophers) wrote essays and pamphlets on international trade that advocated an economic philosophy known as mercantilism. The mercantilists maintained that the way for a nation to become rich and powerful was to export more than it imported. Thus the government had to do all in its power to stimulate the nation’s export and discourage and restrict imports.
在17/18世纪期间，一批人（包括商人、银行家、政府官员甚至哲学家）写了许多有关国际贸易的文章和小册子，推崇一种被称为重商主义的经济哲学。简而言之，重商主义者认为国家富强的方法应当是精良是出口大于进口，而超出的结果是金银等贵重金属的流入。而一个国家拥有越多的金银，就会越富有、强大。因此，政府应当竭尽所能的鼓励出口，不主张甚至限制商品（尤其是奢侈类消费品）的进口。
Chapter 3 The Standard Theory of International Trade
1. P60 机会成本递增
Increasing opportunity costs mean that the nation must give up more and more of one commodity to release just enough resources to produce each
additional unit of another commodity.
在现实条件下，一国在生产中通常面对的是递增的机会成本而不是固定成本。机会成本递增意味着一国为了获得每多生产1单位某商品的资源而必须减少越来越多的另一商品的产量。
2. P61边际转换率
MRT of X for Y refers to the amount of Y that a nation must give up to produce each additional unit of X. Thus MRT=Opportunity cost of X=The (absolute) slope of the PPF at the point of production
X对Y的边际转换率就是每多生产1单位X而少生产Y的数量。故边际转换率可用来表示X（横轴上的商品）的边际成本。生产可能性曲线上某一点X对Y的边际转换率可用生产可能性曲线在该点的斜率来表示。
3. P62 社会无差异曲线
A community indifference curve shows the various combinations of two commodities that yield equal satisfaction to the community or nation.
(1)Higher curves refer to greater satisfaction, lower curves to less satisfaction
(2)CIC are negatively sloped and convex from origin
(3)They must not cross
社会无差异曲线反映了能使社会或国家获得同等满足程度的两种商品的不同组合。较高的曲线反映较高的满足程度，较低的曲线反映较低的满足程度。社会无差异曲线凸向原点，斜率为负，且互不相交。
4. P63 边际替代率
MRS of X for Y in consumption refers to the amount of Y that a nation could give up for one extra unit of X and still remain the same indifference curve.
消费中的X对Y的边际替代率指的是一国为保持在原来的无差异曲线上，多消费1单位X而必须放弃的Y的数量。社会无差异曲线上某一点X对Y的边际替代率用该点的斜率的绝对值表示，并且随着该国的消费组合沿该曲线下移而下降。
5. P65 鼓励均衡发生的条件
Equilibrium in Isolation：In the absence of trade, a nation is in equilibrium when it reaches the highest indifferences curve possible given its production frontier. This occurs at the point where a CIC is tangent to the nation’s PPF.
在不发生对外贸易的条件下，当一国达到其生产可能性曲线所允许的最高的社会无差异曲线时，该国就达到了均衡状态，这发生在社会无差异曲线与生产可能性曲线相切的位置上。两条曲线在切点的公切线的斜率给出了国内的均衡相对价格，反映了该国的比较优势。
6.P65 孤立均衡的相对价格
The equilibrium-relative commodity price in isolation is given by the slope of the common tangent to the nation’s PPF and CIC at the autarky point of production and consumption.孤立均衡的相对商品价格也就是在生产和消费相等那一点上一国生产可能性曲线和无差异曲线的公切线的斜率。
7.P69 贸易均衡的相对价格
The equilibrium-relative commodity price with trade is the common relative price in both nations at which trade is balanced.贸易均衡的相对商品价格就是贸易平衡时贸易双方共同的相对价格。
8. P72 The movement from point A to point T in consumption measures the gains from exchange.交易所得见模型3.5E
9. The movement from T to E in consumption measures the gains from specialization in production.分工所得见模型3.5E
Chapter 4 Demand and Supply, Offer Curves, and the Terms of Trade.
1.P92 提供曲线
Offer curve (sometimes referred to as reciprocal demand curves) of a nation shows how much of its import commodity the nation demands for it to be willing to supply various amounts of its export commodity.提供曲线（有时也称为相互需求曲线）反映一国为了进口其需要的某一数量的商品而愿意出口的商品数量。
2.P92
Offer curves were devised and introduced into international economics by Alfred Marshall and Ysidro Edgeworth. 提供曲线是有马歇尔和埃奇沃思共同提出并应用于国际经济学中。
3. The offer curve of nation 1 lies above the autarky price line of PA=1/4 and bulges toward the X-axis, which measures the commodity of its comparative advantage and export. A国的提供曲线位于自给自足的价格线PA=1/4，凸向X轴，这表明X轴代表商品时其比较优势所在，应该出口。见模型11
4. The offer curve of nation 2 lies below the autarky price line of PA=4 and bulges toward the Y-axis, which measures the commodity of its comparative advantage and export. B国的提供曲线位于其自给自足价格线PA’=4的下方，凸向Y轴，故Y是B国具有比较优势的商品，应进行出口。见模型12
5. P99 贸易条件
The terms of trade of a nation are defined as the ratio of the price of its export commodity to the price of its import commodity.一国的贸易条件是指一国出口商品价格和该国进口商品价格的比值。
Chapter 5 Factor Endowments and Heckscher-Ohlin Theory
1. P121派生需求
We assume that tastes, or demand preferences, are the same in both nations. and we know that the demand for a factor of production is a derived demand —derived from the demand for the final commodity that requires the factor in its production.我们假定两国的需求偏好是相同的，在这种情况下，定义要素丰裕度的两种方法得出的结论是相同的，所以知道对一种生产要素的需求是派生需求——是从最终产品的需求中派生出来的。
2. P125 H-O理论的形式
The H-O theory can be presented in the form of two theorems: (1) H-O theorem which deals with and predicts the pattern of trade; (2) Factor-price equalization theorem which deals with the effect of international trade on factor prices. H-O理论有两种形式：一种是所谓的H-O理论，研究和预测贸易模式；另一种是要素价格均等理论，研究国际贸易对要素价格的影响。
3.P125 H-O理论
H-O theorem: A nation will export the commodity whose production requires the intensive use of the nation’s relatively abundant and cheap factor and import the commodity whose production requires the intensive use of the nation’s relatively scarce and expensive factor. H-O定理：一国应当出口该国相对丰裕和便宜的要素密集型的商品，进口该国相对稀缺和昂贵的要素密集型的商品。简而言之，劳动相对丰裕的国家应当出口劳动密集型的商品，进口资本密集型的商品。
4. P138 里昂惕夫之秘密
The first empirical test of the Heckscher-Ohlin model was conducted by Wassily Leontief in 1951 using U.S data for the year 1947. The results of Leontief’s test were startling. U.S import substitutes were about 30 percent more K intensive than U.S exports. This was the opposite of what the H-O model predicted, and it became known as the Leontief Paradox. 对H-O模型的第一次经验检验是在1951年，由瓦西里·里昂惕夫利用美国1947年数据进行的。由于美国是世界上资本最富裕的国家，里昂惕夫期望能得出美国出口资本密集型商品，进口劳动密集型商品的结论.检验结果与H-O理论的预测完全相反，这就是著名的里昂惕夫之谜。
5. P141 人力资本
Human capital refers to education, job training, and health embodied in workers, which increase their productivity. 人力资本就是工人拥有的能提高其劳动生产率的教育、工作培训、健康状况等一系列性状。
Chapter 6 Economies of Scale, Imperfect Competition, and International Trade
1.P168规模报酬递增
Increasing returns to scale refers to the production situation where output grows proportionately more than the increase in inputs or factors of production.规模报酬递增指的是产出水平增长比例高于要素投入增长比例的生产状况。
2. P179技术差距模型
According to the technological gap model sketched by Posner in 1961, a great deal of the trade among industrialized countries is based on the introduction of new products and production processes. 根据1961年有波斯奈建立的技术差距模型，工业化国家之间贸易的很大一部分都是基于新产品和新工序的引进。
These give the innovating firm and nation a temporary monopoly which is often based on patents and copyrights in the world market.这使得发明厂商和国家在世界市场上暂时处于垄断地位。
However, this model does not explain the size of technological gaps and does not explore the reason that technological gaps arise or exactly how they are eliminated over time.缺点在于它并不能确定技术差距的大小，也没有给出技术差距产生和随着时间推移而消失的原因。
3. P179 产品生命周期模型
A generalization and extension of the technological gap is the Product cycle model, which was fully developed by Vernon in 1966. 弗农在1966年推出了产品生命周期模型，这是对技术差距模型的总结与扩展。
According to this model, when a new product is introduced, it usually requires skilled labor to produce. 根据这一模型，当一种新产品刚刚诞生时，其生产往往需要高素质的劳动。
As the product matures and acquires mass acceptance, it becomes
standardized; it can then be produced by mass production techniques and less skilled labor.当这种产品成熟并广为大众接受时，他就变得标准化了，就可以用大规模生产技术和素质较低的劳动力进行生产了。
Therefore, comparative advantage in the product shifts from the advanced nation that originally introduced it to less advanced nations.因此，对于该产品的比较优势会从最早引入它的发达国家转移到劳动力想对你便宜的不发达国家。
Chapter 8 Trade restrictions: Tariffs
1. P235 关税
A tariff is a tax or duty levied on the traded commodity as it cross a national boundary.关税是对通过一国国境的贸易商品课征的税收。（进口关税比出口关税重要）
2. P239消费者剩余
Consumer surplus is the difference between what consumers would be willing to pay for each unit of the commodity and what they actually pay.消费者剩余就是消费者对面每一单位商品所愿意支付的价格与实际支付价格的差。
3. P241(微经)生产者剩余
Producer surplus is the difference between what producers would be willing to be paid (their costs of production) for each unit of the commodity and what they actually are paid.生产者剩余是指生产者实际得到的价格与生产者愿意接受的价格
之间的差异。
4. P242 名义成本
The nominal tariff rate is important to consumer. Because it indicates by how much the price of the final commodity increases as a result of the tariff.名义关税对消费者来说很重要（因为它表明了关税导致的最终商品价格的增加量）
5. P242关税有效率
The effective tariff rate is important to producers. Because it indicates how much protection is actually provided to the domestic processing of the import-competing commodity. 关税有效率对生产者很重要，因为它表明了对进口商品竞争的国内生产的产品提供保护的度。
6.P246关税升级
Most industrial nations have “cascading” tariff structure with very low or zero nominal tariffs on raw material and higher and higher rate the greater is the degree of processing (tariff escalation). 许多工业国家都有一个瀑布式的关税结构，对原材料制定非常低或者零的名义税率，随着加工过程越来越深，名义税率就越来越高。
7. P251斯托尔帕-萨缪尔森定理
The Stolper-Samuelson Theorem postulates that an increase in the relative price of a commodity (for example, as a result of a tariff) raises the return or
earnings of the factor used intensively in the production of the commodity. 假定当商品相对价格上升时（例如由于灌水造成上升）会增加在该商品生产中密集使用的要素的回报率或收益率。
8. P254 梅特泽尔悖论
The Stolper-Samuelson theorem also holds only in the unusual case will the theorem not hold. This is known asMetzler paradox. 只有在征税后Px/Py对单个消费者和生产者而言下降的特殊情况下这个定理才不成立，即为梅特泽尔悖论
Chapter 9 Nontariff Trade Barriers and the New Protectionism
1. P274配额
A quota is the most important nontariff trade barrier. It is a direct quantitative restriction on the amount of a commodity allowed to be imported or exported.配额是最重要的非关税贸易壁垒，它是一种对允许进口或出口的商品数量的直接限制。
2.P276 非关税贸易壁垒
During the past two decades, those nontariff trade barriers (NTBs), or the new protectionism, have become more important than tariffs as obstructions to the flow of international trade. 非关税贸易壁垒或新保护主义在阻塞国际贸易流方面已比进口关税更加重要。
3.P276 自动出口限制
Voluntary export restraints (VERs) refer to the case where an importing country induces another nation to reduce its exports of a commodity “voluntarily”, under the threat of higher all-round trade restriction, when these exports threaten an entire domestic industry.当一国出口威胁到进口国整个国内经济时，进口国以全面贸易限制相威胁，引导另一国自愿的减少某种商品的出口。
4. P279石油输出国组织
The most notorious of present-day international cartel is OPEC (Organization of petroleum Exporting Countries). An international cartel is an organization of suppliers of a commodity located in different nations that agrees to restrict output and exports of the commodity with the aim of maximizing or increasing the total profits of the organization. 今天最为知名的国际卡特尔是石油输出国组织，它通过限制产量和出口，在1973和1974年间成功的使石油价格上涨四倍。国际卡特尔是一个有不同国家的某种商品供应商组成的组织，他们达成协议限制某种商品的产量和出口以使组织的总利润最大化或有所增加。
5. P280 倾销
Dumping is the export of a commodity at below cost or at least the sale of a commodity at a lower price abroad than domestically. (1)Persistent dumping (2) Predatory dumping (3) Sporadic dumping.倾销是指一种商品以低于成本或至少以低于国内价格出口，可分为持续性、掠夺性、偶然性三种。
6. P281出口补贴
Export subsidies are direct payments or the granting of tax relief and subsidized loans to the nation’s exporters or potential exporters and /or low-interest loans to foreign buyers so as to stimulate the nation’s export. 出口补贴是指对本国出口者或潜在出口者进行直接支付或者给予减免税或补贴贷款，以及对外国购买者提供低息贷款，从而刺激本国出口。
7. P283反补贴税
Countervailing duties (CVDs) are often imposed on imports to offset export subsidies by foreign government.反补贴税通常对进口商品征收，以抵消外国政府对其出口产品的补贴。
8. P287 贸易保护的“以邻为壑”的观点
Two questionable arguments are that protection is needed(1) to reduce domestic unemployment and (2) to cure a deficit in the nation’s balance of payments. However, these are beggar-thy-neighbor argument for protection because they come at the expense of other nations.两个有问题的保护观点：1.需要通过保护来减少国内失业2.需要通过保护来消除国际收支赤字。通过引导国内产品取代进口，保护措施会减少国内失业和收支赤字。这是以其他国家损失为基础的以邻为壑的观点。
9. P287幼稚工业观点
One argument for protection that stands up to close economic scrutiny is the infant-industry argument. It holds that a nation may have a potential
comparative advantage in a commodity, but because of lack of know-how and initial small level of output, the industry will not be set up or, if already started, cannot compete successfully with more established foreign firms. 一种能静的及经济考察的关于保护的观点是幼稚工业观点，认为一个国家的某种商品可能有潜在的比较优势，但是由于缺乏专有技术和最初较少的投入，该产业难以建立，或者随意启动，亦难与许多现有的外国公司进行成功的竞争。
10. P291 战略性的贸易政策
Strategic Trade Policy is a relatively recent development advanced in favor of an activist trade policy and protectionism. According to this argument, a nation can create a comparative advantage (through temporary trade protection, subsidies, tax benefits, and co-operative government-industry programs) in some industries that are deemed crucial to future growth in the nation.
支持最积极的贸易政策和保护主义，认为一个国家可以（通过暂时的贸易保护、补贴、税收优惠以及政府与工业部门的合作计划）在被认为对该国至关重要的领域内创造出比较优势。
Chapter 10 Economic Integration: Customs Unions and Free Trade Areas
1. P321经济一体化
The theory of economic integration refers to the commercial policy of discriminatively reducing or eliminating trade barriers only among the nations
joining together.经济一体化理论涉及加入同盟的国家有区别地减少或消除贸易壁垒的商业政策。
2. P321特惠贸易协定
Preferential trade arrangements provide lower barriers on trade among participating nations than on trade with nonmember nations。特惠贸易协定是参加协定的成员国之间在进行贸易时互相提供比与非成员国进行贸易时更低的贸易壁垒。
3. P321自由贸易区
A free trade area is the form of economic integration wherein all barriers are removed on trade among members, but each nation retains its own barriers to trade with nonmembers. 在自由贸易区这种经济一体化形式中，各成员国之间解除了所有的贸易壁垒，但是每个成员国对非成员国保留了自己的壁垒。
4. P322关税同盟
A customs union allows no tariffs or other barriers on trade among members (as in FTA), and in addition it harmonizes trade policies (such as the setting of common tariff rates) toward the rest of the world.关税同盟允许进行贸易的各成员国之间就像在自由贸易区内一样没有关税或其他壁垒。
5. P322共同市场
A common market goes beyond a customs union by also allowing the free
movement of labor and capital among member nations. 共同市场比关税同盟更进一步，它允许参加国之间资本和劳动力自由流动。
6. P322经济联盟
An economic union goes still further by harmonizing or even unifying the monetary and fiscal policies of member states.经济联盟比共同市场又进一步，它协调甚至统一成员国之间的货币和财政政策。
7. P322贸易创造
Trade creation occurs when some domestic production in a nation that is a member of the customs union is replaced by lower-cost imports from another member nation.当关税同盟中一个国家的一些国内产品被来自同盟中另一国家的较低生产成本的进口产品替代时，就产生了贸易创造。
8. P324贸易转移
Trade diversion occurs when lower-cost imports from outside the customs union are replaced by higher cost imports from a union member. 当一国的进口从一个非关税同盟的低成本国家被另一关税同盟国的高成本国家所代替时，就发生了贸易转移。
9. P327次优理论
Theory of the second best states that if all the conditions required maximizing welfare or reaching Pareto optimum cannot be satisfied, trying to
satisfy as many as of these conditions as possible does not necessarily or usually lead to the second best position.如果福利最大化或者帕累托最优所需要的条件不能全部满足，那么尽量满足尽可能多的条件是没有必要的，且这样做通常会导致次优情况的发生。
附表:公式整理
1. 5.3A Factor Intensity
(K/L)
(TK/TL)2> (TK/TL)1
(PK/PL)2< (PK/PL)1 or (r/w)2< (r/w)1
2. 5.5 Factor-Price Equalization and Income Distribution (H-O-S theorem)
Before trade :A（ w / r ） 3. 6.4B Measuring Intra-Industry Trade The level of intra-industry trade can be measured by the intra-industry index (T):T=1-[∣X-Y∣/(X+Y)] 4. 8.2C Costs and Benefits of a Tariff Protection cost=-(a+b+c+d)+a+c=-(c+d) 5. 8.3a The Rate of Effective Protection The rate of effective protection is usually calculated by the following formulas: (1) g=(V’-V)/V (2) g=(t-aiti)/(1-ai) For given value of ai and ti, g is larger the greater is the value of t. For given value of ai and t, g is smaller the greater is the value of ti 6. 9.3E Export Subsidies Figure 9.2 (a’+b’+c’)-(a’+b’)-(b’+c’+d’)=-(b’+d’) 因篇幅问题不能全部显示，请点此查看更多更全内容